Arabic kohl and its material culture: history, tradition and UNESCO recognition

Arabic kohl and its material culture: history, tradition and UNESCO recognition

by | General jewellery topics

Arabic kohl history and tradition

Arabic kohl and its material culture: UNESCO recognition

Published December 12, 2025

Kohl eyeliner has just been recognised as UNESCO intangible cultural heritage.

In December 2025, kohl was inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. That is hugely significant, because it recognises the importance of the heritage of adornment. Like henna, which I wrote about in an earlier blog, kohl is much more than a beauty product: it is a practice, a tradition, and a form of expression. So, let’s take a closer look kohl, and what its material culture can tell us about beauty, identity and memory!

Why did UNESCO recognise Arabic kohl as intangible cultural heritage?

First, let’s look at what the World Heritage inscription actually says. The UNESCO description highlights the multi-layered role of traditional kohl in Arab societies:

‘Arabic Kohl is both a craft and a social practice that is integral to the lifestyle of Bedouin and nomadic tribes, as well as rural, marshland, and fishing communities in the Arab region. It is a fine black powder used as eyeliner by people of all genders, serving not only as a cosmetic but also for protection against wind, sand and sunlight. A part of everyday life, special occasions and religious rituals, it is made from natural ingredients, with the preparation varying according to local environments and lifestyles. Kohl is made either at home or in gatherings, mostly by women, who transmit the related knowledge and skills to their daughters and granddaughters. Arabic kohl is typically stored in decorative containers called ‘makhala’, which are often passed down as family keepsakes. The practice is also transmitted through oral traditions, community events, schools and cultural institutions. In addition to being a symbol of community identity and a key part of daily beauty routines, kohl is used as a physical and spiritual healing remedy. It promotes dialogue and fosters meaningful exchanges between nations and communities of women. Kohl-rimmed eyes also serve as a strong form of female expression, particularly in societies where only eyes are visible due to face coverings.’ [1]

This powerful recognition shows that Arabic kohl is a living, breathing tradition. It’s about the how, not just the what. Like henna, the art of applying kohl is not just make-up or beautification. It’s a system of knowledge passed on through generations.

Which countries submitted the nomination for kohl as intangible heritage?

The nomination for kohl as intangible cultural heritage was submitted by a number of countries: Iraq, Jordan, Libya, Oman, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates.

Although these are the nations that submitted the nomination, I’d invite you to bear in mind that the practice of kohl exists in a much wider region and in many different forms. The practice of kohl is also not limited to Arabic communities, but is part of many other cultures, too.

Just one example: the oldest form of kohl known to date comes from ancient Egypt, where eye make-up palettes appear at the end of the 4th millennium BCE. Egypt, however, is not among the countries that submitted the nomination of this cultural heritage – that does not automatically mean kohl doesn’t exist in Egypt. That is not what this inscription on the Intangible Cultural Heritage list claims: it is a recognition of a living cultural practice, and in this case, the scope has a narrower geographical reach than that of the actual practice itself.

(but with that long history of kohl, I was personally surprised to see Egypt did not join the nomination)

Kohl as a living tradition

Kohl, obviously, is not a thing of the past, but a living practice. If you have ever visited anywhere in North Africa or Southwest Asia, you’ll have seen it on offer and in use. The recipes vary widely, but the basic goal is the same: to create a smooth, fine black powder. This could be made from something as simple as burnt charcoal, lamp black or pot soot (sarral kohl) or more specialised substances like antimony or galena (athmad kohl).

Application methods of this powder also varied: from saliva and water for everyday use, to rosewater and orange blossom water for more luxurious occasions. In some traditions, aromatic resins such as burnt ambergris, frankincense or ‘ūd (aloeswood) were added to the mix.

The material culture of kohl: containers, adornment, and meaning

Where there’s kohl, there’s a container [2]. These are generally called makhala, and the needle used to apply kohl to the eyes is known as merwad. That’s the same word used for the needle to apply perfumes: merwad means stick, needle.

Besides practical containers, makhala are very important in ceremonial use. In Beit Dajan, Palestine, brides would dance on their wedding while holding their kohl container: person, adornment, social status and object are one and the same.

Elsewhere, kohl was a popular gift from pilgrims returning from the Hajj. This was antimony kohl (athmad) mixed with water from the ZamZam well. Their function here extended beyond cosmetics: they combine religious concepts of purity and cleanliness with adornment.

How kohl containers reflect local values

The form, decoration and materials of kohl containers vary across the region. In some areas, they belong more to the realm of jewellery, made of silver or copper, and intended to be seen. I’ve written about similar practices in Afghan vanity sets in this blog.

They may even have gendered distinctions: men do not generally wear adornment, but kohl is worn by men, women and children. Men, too, had to carry their kohl containers on their person. In those cases, the containers took the shape of masculine attributes: silver bullet-shaped containers or versions of gunpowder horns. That is not to ‘hide’ the fact that men use make-up: kohl containers simply take the form best suited to their wearer.

In other regions kohl containers are part of dress and costume, the container itself covered in fabric. By studying the decoration of these containers and comparing them to regional jewellery styles, we begin to see where these objects fit into personal adornment. Were they worn on a person? Displayed in the house? Kept in private, away from prying eyes? These questions help us understand what these containers meant to their users.

Kohl as identity, resistance and care

While kohl enhances beauty, it also has protective and healing roles, both natural and supernatural. Natural ingredients such as antimony were considered to strengthen and purify the eyes. It also protected against evil spirits, and applying it is an act of purity and cleanliness in itself. This ties into a wider tradition where adornment is protective as well as decorative. If you have been following this blog for a while, you know that is a theme that recurs across jewellery, scent, textiles, body aesthetic and more!

Kohl: a world heritage of adornment

Kohl’s inscription as World Heritage is a recognition of an ancient practice. And as with henna, recognising kohl as intangible cultural heritage brings attention to the people who keep these practices alive: the women who prepare it, apply it, teach it, and wear it. Because heritage is not just objects: the objects are only the material component of something much larger.

Kohl and its containers form part of an entire system of knowledge, care, expression and identity: if we look at them as one component in a network of beliefs, actions and objects, we learn so much more!

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Find out more about the meaning of intangible personal adornment in the e-courses!

More posts on jewellery and adornment? Browse them all here!

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References

[1] See the UNESCO inscription here https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/arabic-kohl-02261

[2] See Paint it, Black by Jolanda Bos (2019): the only book to date with an extensive overview of kohl containers from past to present.

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The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

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What to do when gold gets too expensive?

What to do when gold gets too expensive?

by | General jewellery topics

Jewellery & Economy

What to do when gold gets too expensive?

Published on February 26, 2025

It’s 2025, the gold prices have been skyrocketing for some time now, and that seems to continue for the foreseeable future.

What happens when gold becomes too expensive for events such as weddings? This question isn’t new: across cultures, people have long found creative ways to adapt when the price of gold put it out of reach.

From renting jewellery for weddings, to turning to imitation pieces and replicas, to rediscovering silver jewellery, the traditions of adornment have always continued in one form or another. These practices reveal much about how jewellery functions: not just as wealth, but as heritage, identity, and cultural expression.

Renting jewellery as an alternative when gold prices rise

If it’s just for the day, you don’t actually have to own the jewellery. So, for both guests and the bride herself, it is possible to borrow someone else’s jewellery. That can be the collective jewellery of several family members, but also a set rented from a jeweller. [1]

Bear in mind that, while this has been an accepted custom for decades, wearing another person’s jewellery is limited to these individual occasions; jewellery has never been passed down from generation to generation. Each bride expects to be honoured with a new set of jewellery. Second-hand jewellery that has already been worn for an entire lifetime, is usually dismissed.

And finally, jewellery is sold to cover expenses throughout a woman’s life: it is constantly added to or sold off.

This practice, by the way, makes jewellery that is more than one generation old hard to come by; most jewellery was melted down and worked into new pieces over the course of the owner’s life.

Imitation jewellery & replicas: how cultures respond

If it’s not for the day, but for a considerable amount of time, that is when imitations come in. And these can actually be very, very good! That is because imitations as a phenomenon have been around for quite some time, too.

Should a woman have to sell her jewellery to cover expenses, that will have the neighbours talking for sure – unless they don’t see the difference. Both silver and gold jewellery can be replaced by cheaper substitutes.

Those replicas were so good that the difference between the originals and their cheaper counterparts could often only be discerned on close examination.

In Egypt, one particular company thrived on this demand for gold-plated replicas. The icon of their brand name ‘al-Gamal’, the camel, was stamped into the jewellery; at a distance this resembled the official gold hallmark and added to the illusion of authenticity [2].

Speaking of hallmarks, you could also imitate those to look like the real deal from a distance. Instead of the official marks, they would consist of a series of X’s for example, or, a beautiful variety that does not speak untruths: the word ‘metal’ stamped into the surface: just like a regular hallmark would mention silver or gold content.

Silver jewellery revival: heritage and value when gold fades

As a result of those skyrocketing gold prices, trend observers have seen a return to traditional silver jewellery instead of gold. And that may even include traditional heirloom jewellery: apart from its monetary value, authentic silver jewellery has been being revalued increasingly as cultural heritage in its own right for the past decades.

Born out of circumstances, it’s nonetheless a beautiful way of old jewellery gaining new meaning in today’s world!

See more here about changing values of materials used in jewellery: did you know aluminium used to be a precious metal?

Cultural resilience: jewellery, heritage and solutions beyond gold

When the price of gold rises, the world of jewellery does not stop — it transforms. Imitation jewellery, silver ornaments, and even the practice of borrowing or renting jewellery all show how people preserve the meaning of adornment in the face of economic limits.

So, here we see again how jewellery has never been only about precious materials. It also carries heritage, memory, and symbolism. In this sense, gold’s expense only highlights a timeless truth: jewellery is valuable not just for what it is made of, but for the role it plays in tradition, identity, and human connection.

Find out more about jewellery as a financial asset in the course!

More posts on the everyday life of jewellery? Browse them all here!

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References for the use of jewellery as financial asset

[1] See Lindisfarne-Tapper , N. & B. Ingham (eds), 2013. Languages of Dress in the Middle East. Routledge, London/New York, p. 62

[2] See Fahmy, A.  2007. Enchanted Jewelry of Egypt. The traditional art and craft. American University in Cairo Press, Cairo

 

Would you like to quote this article? Please do! Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

Jewellery and Ramadan

Jewellery and Ramadan

by | General jewellery topics

Jewellery & religion

Jewellery and Ramadan

Published on February 25, 2025

Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar, is a period of deep spiritual reflection, fasting, and community engagement for Muslims worldwide. The end of the month is celebrated, too, and during both the holy month itself and the Eid-celebration after, jewellery is important. This blog tells you more about jewellery and Ramadan!

Can you wear jewellery during Ramadan?

The short answer: yes! There are no specific rules in place that forbid the wearing of jewellery during Ramadan. Given that Ramadan is a month of reflection, modesty and devotion to God, it is however encouraged to be not too ostentatious.

So, in the end, wearing jewellery during Ramadan is a personal choice, influenced by cultural traditions, religious interpretation, and personal intent. If it aligns with modesty and does not distract from worship, it is widely accepted.

Jewellery as Ramadan gift

Jewellery makes a wonderful Ramadan gift. Gifts can be exchanged when breaking fast together: not every day, but when families visit each other on the occasion of a more formal iftar (the first meal of the day, just after dusk) or suhoor (the last meal of the day, just before dawn), small gifts add to familial bonds and to the celebratory atmosphere. Gifts are also extended to members of the community. [1]

That is a tradition that large brands have picked up upon, too. In the Gulf and the Arab Peninsula for example, the period leading up to and during Ramadan sees jewellery brands launching special collections that resonate with the spiritual and cultural themes of the month.

These collections often feature designs incorporating traditional motifs, like the crescent or eye, or calligraphy of one of the Names of God: try an Internet search on ‘Ramadan jewellery’ and see what beautiful collections are offered each year!

Jewellery & sales during Ramadan

The month of Ramadan often leads to a surge in economic activity, particularly in the jewellery sector. The last ten days of Ramadan are typically the busiest: this is when Eid al-Fitr is around the corner and the preparations for the celebrations start.

The importance of Eid al-Fitr is hard to overestimate: even though it is not one of the major holidays, many stores and offices are closed for several days, and it comes with the same stress-levels as Christmas: think of thorough house-cleaning, family visits and lots of cooking and eating together!

On Eid al-Fitr, people wear new clothes, and it is customary to give gifts. These often include jewellery as well.

Where does this custom of jewellery gifts during Ramadan come from…?

This tradition itself is rooted in the economic significance jewellery has had for millennia. Giving small pieces of jewellery is a way of adding to a personal savings’ account, you could say: husbands, brothers and uncles present smaller pieces of jewellery to the women of their families on celebratory occasions, and Ramadan is one of those occasions.

The emphasis on jewellery as you’ll find it today, with special Ramadan collections and jewellery heavily marketed as suitable Ramadan or Eid gift, is however more of a marketing principle of the last decades: before that, there was no such thing!

There is another aspect of jewellery in relation to Ramadan, and that is whether or not you should pay zakat over it: that’s what the next blog is about!

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References for Jewellery & Ramadan

[1] Hilma Granqvist mentions the giving of gifts to a male school teacher in Artas, Palestine, in the 1920s. H. Granqvist, Birth and Childhood among the Arabs, Soderstroms, p. 148.

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Would you like to quote this article? Please do! Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

Jewellery and the senses: sound

Jewellery and the senses: sound

by | General jewellery topics

Sensory research

Jewellery and the senses: sound

Published on January 28, 2025

Ethnic jewellery is often studied for its aesthetic, symbolic, and material qualities. But there is much more to it, that is difficult to study from a book or when a jewel is lying in a museum case…and that is the sensory experiences it evokes for its wearers and the people around it. And imagine, for archaeological jewellery that is even harder, as there is no one left to ask! So, I wanted to introduce the relationship between jewellery and the senses: what did a piece of jewellery mean for its wearer? And what do we miss out as researchers and collectors, coming from another culture or timeframe? In this fourth article, we’ll look at sound.

Why study jewellery and sound?

Jewellery is not just a visual or tactile experience; it engages the sense of hearing as well. The jingling of bells, the clinking of chains, and the resonant hum of metallic discs brushing against one another are very important. They do something: they transform jewellery into an interactive and performative medium. That means that a piece of jewellery becomes much more than just a form of adornment: it is part of a living, moving cultural context. It moves along with its wearer, and it jingles!

In the Middle East and North Africa, where oral traditions, music, and rhythm are part and parcel of cultural expression, the sounds produced by jewellery play a significant role in daily life. Sound, by its very nature, requires interaction between object and wearer. Jewellery does not create sound when it’s lying around: it’s that interaction between human and thing again that makes jewellery into something more.

So that makes it a fascinating lens through which to study jewellery’s social and symbolic functions.

Sound: wearing sound in the Middle East

In many communities, jewellery that produces sound is not just a personal accessory but an extension of the wearer’s identity. The particular jingling, clinking, or ringing of a piece can make someone recognizable even before they appear in sight. If you are one of those people that loves to wear tons of jewellery, you know what I’m talking about…!

In this sense, jewellery becomes a kind of auditory signature, a way for individuals to announce their presence or movements. The tinkling sound of anklets for example would indicate to a mother where her child was playing (and all mothers know that when the sounds stops, it’s definitely time to go and check out what they’re doing!).

Wearing sound: dance

Obviously, dance provides a particularly vivid context in which jewellery’s auditory qualities come to life. The jingling of coins on belts or the clinking of bracelets creates an interplay between the dancer’s body and the ornaments they wear.

As such, they also contribute to the performance by creating an immersive sensory experience for the audience. The sound of jewellery becomes part of the rhythm, reinforcing the connection between dancer, music, and the spectators.

Wearing sound: amulets

As you know, jewellery almost always serves a protective function. And that definitely includes sound. Those small bells or coins attached to necklaces, bracelets, or anklets have as additional effect that they repel negative energies or the “evil eye.”

See more about amulets here!

Sound has the power to influence unseen forces – they will be scared off. Sound creates an audible barrier, and so you will find dangles and other jingling elements quite often in jewellery.

Jewellery and sound as a research field

Unlike visual or material qualities, sound (much like smell) is fleeting. You really need to experience jewellery in its original world, to get an idea of what its auditory capacities are. That is because jewellery is part of a living, breathing community: we often find it solitary depicted in books or showcased in exhibitions, but it is meant to move, shake and shimmy!

So how to go about that? Apart from listening to your jewellery itself, here context is everything. This is a topic where you’d need to dive into the world of everyday life: are there any references to the sound of jewellery in poetry, songs, sayings and expressions? How far does sound carry in the everyday surroundings where the jewellery was worn? Would it have been muffled by the fabric of clothing, are there occasions where sound is inappropriate? Does jewellery made of high-grade silver sound differently than jewellery of low-grade silver or base metal – can you distinguish between social statuses just by listening to the sound of jewellery…?

Jewellery never is just adornment – it is an unalienable part of its community, and that goes for its temporary capacities, too.

Jewellery and sound: an auditory world of meaning

So, by exploring the relationship between jewellery and sound, we may gain a deeper understanding of how these objects were experienced in their original contexts. It also helps us to consider what is lost when jewellery is removed from its sensory and cultural environment. That goes for all the sensory capacities of jewellery, of course, but when jewellery falls silent, we really miss out!

Read the earlier blogs on the sensory aspects of jewellery here:

Sight

Touch

Smell

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Would you like to quote this article? Please do! Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

Henna art: World Heritage

Henna art: World Heritage

by | General jewellery topics

Henna unesco world heritage

Henna: adornment as World Heritage

Published on December 16, 2024

In December 2024, henna was inscribed on the World Heritage List! That is hugely significant, and so it’s time to explore this art form a little more.

What does UNESCO say about henna?

First, let’s have a look at why henna has been promoted to World Heritage. The exact definition is Henna: rituals, aesthetic and social practices. You’ll note that it is far more than just the aesthetic part. In fact, that is only mentioned second, after rituals and followed by social practices. That is hugely significant, as it acknowledges the importance of henna art as a social agent.

The text on the UNESCO website reads:

‘Perceived as sacred by communities in Northern Africa and the Middle East, its leaves are harvested twice a year, left to dry, then ground and processed to create a paste. The specific ingredients and techniques used to prepare the paste vary according to the intended use and country. Henna paste is commonly used by women for adornment, such as to dye hair and fingertips or to decorate hands and feet.

A symbol of joy, it is used in everyday life and on festive occasions such as births and weddings. Henna branches, leaves and paste are also used in crafts and for medicinal purposes, including the treatment of certain skin diseases.

Its use is frequently accompanied by oral expressions such as chants, songs, proverbs and poems, and is linked to centuries-old societal rules and traditions. This includes knowledge related to the cultivation and care of the henna tree and the preparation and application of the paste. Families and communities transmit the traditions through observation and hands-on practice.

Today, organizations, beauty centres, universities and the media also contribute to their transmission. A key component of traditional events, henna rituals enhance social bonds and promote communication.’ [1]

I particularly appreciate that henna here is not just represented as the end product (an adorned something), but that the process itself, from leaves to paste, is part of the World Heritage nomination, too.

Henna as transnational heritage

A second important aspect of this nomination is that it has been proposed to UNESCO by a number of countries. Those are:

Algeria
Saudi Arabia
Bahrain
Egypt
United Arab Emirates
Iraq
Jordan
Kuwait
Morocco
Mauritania
Oman
State of Palestine
Qatar
Sudan
Tunisia
Yemen

That does justice to its transnational use, instead of one country claiming it exclusively. Sadly, this happens regularly with for example jewellery that is traditionally worn by people living on both sides of a modern border – they seem to forget that their heritage is older than that border. Fortunately, the insciption of henna art recognises that it is not the prerogative of one country only!

Henna and its many uses

Henna is used in personal grooming, for example as hair care product. The green powder, ground of its dried leaves, is added to boiling water and worked into a paste that is applied to the hair, left in for some time and rinsed out. Henna not only colours the hair with a warm reddish colour, but also nourishes and adds shine. It is used throughout the Arab world, and has been since Antiquity.

Henna is a key element in wedding proceedings: not just for the bride, but for all female attendees. The use of henna is not limited to weddings alone, but is seen in all festive occasions such as religious holidays.

Quite often henna paste was perfumed as well; Freya Stark described a wedding she attended in the Hadramaut, Yemen, where the women had applied heavily scented henna as hair, facial and body decoration. [2]

Henna was regarded as very efficient against jinn and brought blessing (baraka) to the wearer. This is why we encounter henna not only in a form of paint, but also as actual leaves during the henna event of the wedding proceedings. In certain regions of Morocco, among the gifts presented to the bride, either on her henna or on the day of the marriage itself, would also be a basket with eggs lying in henna leaves: these were believed to bring both fertility and prosperity to the bride as well as the blessing intrinsically present in henna leaves.

The patterns on the skin that are drawn with henna extend much deeper than the surface: they bless, remember stories kept in a collective memory, and connect generations, much the colours and patterns in dress and jewellery. These patterns varied from family to family, as they incorporated oral history.

Henna as an art form is always changing. Patterns are shared within the family, not through pattern books, and so tracing the development of a design or the perfect scented henna mixture is a long process.

That is why it is so important that this aspect of henna art, too, is recognised in the World Heritage nomination!

Henna as a process

What is often described as ‘body decoration’, is actually the many-layered visible and olfactory aspect of a transformative process. The individual components of these paint mixtures carried meaning: a specific colour protected and blessed, the added scents amplified these qualities.

The act of preparing and applying was in itself an intimate transformation ritual, where history, blessing and kinship materialized in colour, scent and designs. This process has also been acknowledged in the nomination file:

Henna farmers and the individuals involved in drying, grinding, and processing henna leaves are perhaps the most prominent group concerned with the element.

Merchants and apothecaries that sell ready-to-use or dried henna are considered bearers of the element. This category also includes women that practice the element by designing henna engravings. The women practicing this craft are known by various names. For example, they are referred to as Neqqasha in Morocco, al hannana in Egypt and Sudan, al mohaniya or al hannaya in the United Arab Emirates, and naggashat al henna in Yemen (and the rest of the submitting states). This category also includes musical troupes that are present during henna ceremonies on various social and religious occasions as well as traditional healers who utilize henna in the treatment of certain diseases.

Furthermore, artisans that use henna wood in making baskets (Egypt and Sudan) and henna leaves in dying wool are also considered concerned groups. [3]

The patterns on the skin went deeper than the surface: they blessed, retold stories kept in a collective memory, and connected generations, as did the colours and patterns in dress and jewellery along with the fragrances added to both. Together, they formed an aesthetic that extended far beyond pleasing the senses.

More about henna

The art of henna encompasses so many cultural and spiritual aspects! In the course on Scents of the Middle East, you’ll learn more about the uses of henna in relation to personal adornment.

Fatima Oulad Thami addresses henna in her research and on her website: have a look here to learn more!

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References for henna art as World Heritage

[1] See the UNESCO inscription here: https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/henna-rituals-aesthetic-and-social-practices-02116

[2] Stark, F. 1936. The Southern Gates of Arabia. A Journey in the Hadhramaut. John Murray, London (2003 edition), p. 42

[3] See the nomination file, accessible via the link with note 1.

Would you like to quote this article? Please do! Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

Jewellery and the senses: smell

Jewellery and the senses: smell

by | General jewellery topics

Sensory research

Jewellery and the senses: smell

Published on December 13, 2024

Ethnic jewellery is often studied for its aesthetic, symbolic, and material qualities. But there is much more to it, that is difficult to study from a book or when a jewel is lying in a museum case…and that is the sensory experiences it evokes for its wearers and the people around it. And imagine, for archaeological jewellery that is even harder, as there is no one left to ask! So, I wanted to introduce the relationship between jewellery and the senses: what did a piece of jewellery mean for its wearer? And what do we miss out as researchers and collectors, coming from another culture or timeframe? In this third article, we’ll look at smell.

Why study jewellery and smell?

Smell is an incredibly powerful sense, even if it is invisible and fleeting. The perfume industry is a multi-billion-dollar industry globally, and just the simple fact that people are willing to pay for the sensation of spritzing themselves with a perfume which will inevitably dissipate, tells you something about that importance. It’s temporary, it does not last… but we do want it.

In North Africa and Southwest Asia in particular, the use of fragrant materials is part of ancient cultural, social, and religious traditions. Understanding this dimension of adornment not only enriches our appreciation of these pieces, but also offers new ways that we may look at jewellery.

So, what is it about the olfactory dimension of jewellery? How may we explore and understand something that has gone…?

Smell: scent and its significance in the Middle East

In North Africa and the Middle East, scent is more than an aesthetic pleasure; it is a vital part of daily life, social customs, and religious practices. Fragrance is considered a means of purification, an enhancer of personal allure, and a medium for spiritual connection.

The Prophet Muhammad himself is said to have cherished perfumes, and the use of scent holds an esteemed place in Islamic tradition. The Qur’an and hadiths mention the value of pleasant aromas, especially in ritual contexts such as prayer and preparation for worship.

Culturally, the importance of fragrance is inseparable from concepts of hospitality and intimacy. Homes in the Arab Peninsula are often infused with bakhoor (incense) to welcome guests, while perfumed oils are applied to skin and hair as acts of personal grooming and, again, devotion. These practices underscore a shared belief that fragrance enhances the human connection—whether between individuals, families, or the divine.

How all this works, is explained in the course on Scents in the Middle East!

Wearing scent: jewellery that smells

Jewellery often incorporates materials and designs intended to diffuse or carry scent. For example, silver amulets and pendants sometimes feature hollow compartments, or small perforated boxes. These are designed to hold scented substances such as musk, ambergris, cotton or wool infused with scented oils, or dried herbs and flowers – anything that smells! These containers allow wearers to carry a personal fragrance throughout the day, linking ornamentation to olfactory meaning.

See the meaning and importance of just one example of such a container in this article

Jewellery like this serves not only as decoration, but also as powerful amulet. The scents are believed to ward off the evil eye, a pervasive belief throughout the region. The protective power of these fragrances complements the talismanic role of the jewellery itself.

Adornment and smell: hair, body and dress

In all these contexts, the use of scent in jewellery is closely tied to other scented elements such as dress, hair, and the body itself. After all, layering perfumes was invented in the Middle East! Hair is often cared for with fragrant oils, or indeed scented paste that worked both as a haircare product and modelling agent. Remnants of these pastes can sometimes be found on hair jewellery, as I explain in more detail here.

Items of clothing can be fragranced by fumigating them with incense, and the body itself is cared for with scented oils and perfumes as well: imagine how jewellery once formed part and parcel of this fragrant aura surrounding the wearer!

Jewellery and smell: scent as a research field

So, how to use the sense of smell in jewellery research? After all, most of it is gone…the only thing that remains may be a layer of drab dark residu, or the visual indication that something may have smelled through its design, for example. There are a few ways to go about this:

Look: Awareness of this invisible capacity is key! When you are aware, or may have an inkling or idea, that cultures used fragrance and attached importance to it, actively look for this possibility, too.

Test: Residues of scented oils, resins, or powders can sometimes be detected through scientific methods. Researchers use techniques like gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to identify organic compounds and reconstruct the original scent profile of a piece.

Compare: Examining the cultural and historical context of jewellery can provide clues about whether or not fragrance was used. By that I do not mean to simply slap a capacity of one culture onto another: that never works. What I would suggest however, is that by comparing widely, we may keep an open mind as to what possibilities exist.

Ask: Equally often overlooked, but incredibly important: just ask! Interviews with artisans and communities that still produce traditional jewellery, or that remember how a previous generation made use of this capacity, can get you invaluable insights in how scent was integrated into these pieces.

Jewellery and smell: an invisible world of meaning

Understanding the role of scent in jewellery can deepen our appreciation of the cultural significance of these pieces. Collectors, for example, could consider the olfactory history of their acquisitions as part of their storytelling value: imagine all the stories these pieces could share, about weddings and other festivities, about faith and devotion, about individual preferences and hospitality…all coming together in a piece of jewellery.

In the next installment on the sensory dimensions of jewellery, we’ll be looking at sound!

Read the earlier blogs on the sensory aspects of jewellery here:

Sight

Touch

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References

This blog is based on my book Silver & Frankincense – Scent and Adornment in the Arab world.

Would you like to quote this article? Please do! Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.