A shackled jinn from Oman

by dr. Sigrid van Roode | Magic & Amulets

jewellery as protection

A shackled jinn from Oman

Updated June 25, 2025

Jewellery regularly doubles as protection, as it is worn so close to the body. Often this form of protection is of general nature, but every now and then it makes uses of specific elements to ward off a particular evil. This pendant from Oman hides such an element on its reverse side: a tiny figure of a shackled human form. What does this mean, and what does it tell us about the women who wore this necklace?

The image of a jinn on the Omani kirsh kitab

The disc-shaped pendant is known by several names. The most often used name is somt, which is also used for other round pendants of the same size. [1] In one publication it is called kirsh kitab. [2] A similarly shaped pendant with a comparable reverse side is called kokh, again in one publication: this pendant is decorated with gold leaf on its front side rather than an inscription. [3]

The pendant carries an inscription on its front side. This is the Throne Verse, one of the most powerful verses of the Quran and often used for protection. You will find it often on amulets throughout the Middle East and North Africa.

On the reverse side, in many cases you will find a stylized depiction of a human-shaped figure. This is an image only known to the woman wearing it. You would not be able to see it from the outside. Mostly, this figure is explained as a jinn, held captive by the power of the Throne Verse.

As such, these pendants offer protection from evil spirits in general. The figure however is in some cases said to carry a name. This jinn is not any jinn, but a very particular one. So which jinn is this, and why is it engraved on the back side of an Omani pendant?

The jinn on an Omani pendant: the Bahla Witch?

Forster explains the figure as a representation of the Bahla Witch.[4] Bahla, a fortress town in Oman, has a reputation for the presence of both jinn and witches. [5] The pendant would protect the wearer from witchcraft and jinn alike. As this pendant was worn in a much larger area than just Bahla however, this interpretation may well be true for the inhabitants of the town itself, but there is another possibility that would make sense to many women.

The jinn on an Omani pendant: Umm as-Subyān

This other explanation is that of the human figure as Umm as-Subyān, ‘Mother of Children’. [6] This female jinn is well known beyond Oman and appears also further on the Arab Peninsula. But who is Umm as-Subyān?

In the most benign version, she is said to cause nightmares in children and uncomfortable wet dreams for boys in particular. But, there is more to her than just a night filled with bad dreams. She may be really dangerous.

Anne Regourd has researched how this jinn features in Yemeni oral traditions. [7] These tales share a more gruesome side to Umm as-Subyāns character: she lures young children away from their mothers and eats them, and she also takes newborns. Another tale records how she is capable of possessing young men and women, who then can’t seem to marry, no matter how much they try.

Regourd concludes that Umm as-Subyān is intent on preventing the arrival of children. She tries to prevent marriage altogether, and if a union does succeed, she takes and kills the offspring.

In short, Umm as-Subyān embodies what every woman feared: the inability to have children. [8]

Having children: fertility amulets in the Middle East

Why is not having children something to be afraid of? Fertility was one of the most fundamental aspects of a woman’s life. Having children was important: they assisted from a young age in the daily running of household and work, and would take care of their parents when these grew old. Remember, this is a past in which no retirement funds or care-homes existed!

Not having children could even be reason for divorce. Add to that a high infant mortality rate, and the pressure women were undeer becomes apparent. All over the Arab world, jealous jinn were thought to obstruct attempts at getting pregnant and bearing healthy children.

In this respect, Umm as-Subyān is comparable to for example the Qarina in Egypt [9] and La Taba in Morocco [10]. All three target newborns and young children, and cause infertility or miscarriages in young women.

Many women took precautions to make sure these jinn were rendered harmless, and these precautions often took the form of personal adornment. Jewellery is worn close to the body, and so forms a barrier between you, and the outer world full of dangers.

An Omani pendant with a hidden message

In the case of Umm as-Subyān, two ways of averting her are in both the name humans use when talking about her, and the way she is depicted on the pendant. The name ‘Mother of Children’ uses reverse magic. She is called by the exact opposite of her actions, a form often seen in informal magical practices around the world.

In the image on the pendant, the stylized figure is shackled around her ankles and wrists. Immobilized, she is not able to come for the wearers’ children or prevent her from getting married.

Jewellery reveals a woman’s world of worry

As with anything jinn-related, there is not one definitive identification or final explanation. With the presence of the Throne Verse, the pendant protects against evil influences in general.

The tiny shackled figure, in the story of Umm as-Subyān, reveals a world of worry for women, and so the pendant protects them from what well may have been one of their worst fears.

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Where can I find more on women and amulets in the Middle East?

Find out more about the historic value of amulets in the e-course on Amulets and Magic in Jewellery!

Or start by downloading the free e-book on amulets and jewellery here.

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References

See the book chapter on these amulets by James Redman, which discusses the texts and context of precisely this pendant type in much more depth. This chapter was published in Nov 2020, after the writing of this blog post. Highly recommended reading!

[1] A. Forster 2000. Disappearing Treasures of Oman. Archway Books, Somerset, p. 38-39

[2] P. Shelton, R. Richmond & M. Morris, Oman Adorned.

[3] J.S. Rajab 1998, Silver Jewellery of Oman. Tareq Rajab Museum, Kuwait, p. 63

[4] Forster 2000, p. 40

[5] See L.J. Borger 2011, By the Pricking of My Thumbs, Something Wicked This Way Comes: Omani Perceptions of the Supernatural. Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection. 1039., for a discussion of the supernatural in Omani society.

[6] P. Shelton, R. Richmond & M. Morris, Oman Adorned, p. 102; L. Mols, Kunst uit Zilver. Traditionele sieraden van Oman, in: L. Mols & B. Boelens (red) Oman, p. 137

[7] A. Regourd 2012, Représentations d’Umm Sibyan dans les contes yéménites : de la dévoreuse d’enfant à la djinniyya possédant les humains, in: A. Caiozzo & N. Ernoult (eds), Femmes médiatrices et ambivalentes. Mythes et imaginaires, Paris, Colin, pp. 63 – 72

[8] Regourd 2012, p. 72

[9] See my article in RAWI Magazine for the qarina

[10] J. Bois, La Sorcellerie au Maroc, nouvelle édition 2014, Dar al-Amane, Rabat p. 198.

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The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

Knot magic in adornment

by dr. Sigrid van Roode | Magic & Amulets

the magic of tying

Knot magic in adornment

Updated Jun 25, 2025

In many forms of adornment from the Middle East and North Africa, you’ll find a form of intricacy. Interwoven patterns, knots and complex shapes are added to jewellery and adornment for a reason: there is power in intricacy. That power goes back to the cultural significance of knotting, tying and binding. In this article, we’ll have a look at the magical meanings behind that simple act we all carry out on a daily basis, and that is tying a knot in something.

The history of knot spells

Knots are an ambivalent symbol; they are believed to have curative properties, but they are also said to restrain, bind and strangle.

Even in everyday language, the mention of knotting and untying is often used as a reference to having or solving problems: in Cairo for example, the question ‘Did you get untied?’ actually means ‘Did you solve your problems?’ [1] This power attached to knots dates back deep in in history. One way of undoing magic spells cast on you is untying the knots with which these have been bound together: untying knots is undoing magic.

Babylonian cuneiform texts from as far back as the eighth century BC reveal spells using knots [2], and in ancient Egypt, the hieroglyph denoting protection depicts a series of knots in a rope. In ancient Rome, the Hercules knot was regarded as a powerful talismanic symbol.

Knot magic in the Middle East: what do knots mean?

Knots have many meanings in magic: they can bind, but also strangle. In contemporary Egypt, a wool cord with seven knots, called an ‘uqad,is used to combat fever. The knots are tied by a ritual practitioner who subsequently blows on them, a practice also mentioned in sura 113 of the Qur’an.

The symbolism of knots in the Middle East is powerful. In Syria, both bride and groom take care not to have anything knotted in or on their wedding costume in order to ensure fertility and health. A Palestine lullaby sings ‘Oh our moon, oh sleepy one, loosen your girth and go to sleep’: the loosening of the girdle brings about a state of relaxedness and comfort. [3]

The importance of knots in transition stages is illustrated by a death ritual of the Mandeans in Iraq and Iran. When a sick person is dying, he is washed and clothed in new clothes, but the knot of his girdle is left unfinished. Upon the moment of actual passing, the knot is completed, and after death the last, final knot is tied and the girdle arranged properly. [4]

Knot magic as protection

Intricate knots are often present in amulets: their goal is to utterly confuse the evil eye in order to distract its attention from the wearer or inhabitant of the house. Knot patterns on engraved seals serve the same purpose, besides their wonderful ornamental value, and mark the end of Quranic verses on written amulets. [5]

Written spells are sometimes seen encircled by a border of knots or braids [6], another example of the way these intricate motifs helped to keep evil out and thus enhance the power of the spell.

Tying a knot in your hair was also considered an effective way against spirit possession in Sudan: if you had been previously possessed and were to attend a possession ritual for someone else, tying a knot into your hair would ensure you would not be bothered by a spirit. [7]

What do knots of fabric in trees mean?

Related to tying knots is the use of textile scraps in places that carry significance. Trees near shrines, graves, tombs and (surprisingly often) ancient ruins sometimes carry worn and bleached pieces of textile in their branches. These are tied there on behalf of sick people, hoping the saint, deceased or spirit of the place will heal the owner.

That this practice is still very much alive is for example seen in the visitor regulations of the Shah-i-Zinda mausoleum complex in Samarkand: the rules clearly state that tying a knot is forbidden.

Tying knots: a small ritual of the everyday

You see how a seemingly mundane object, the knot, may represent so much more than just a utilitarian aspect of life. Because beyond the directly utilitarian, the act of tying a knot is often highly meaningful, but after a while all we are left with is the material component of ritual: a simple knot.

Although these materials remnants of magic are inconspicuous and often do not survive in the archaeological record [8], they are among the most used forms of everyday magic and can be seen everywhere if you realize where to look!

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Where can I find more on everyday practices in magic and jewellery?

Find out more about the magic of acts and gestures in the e-course on Amulets and Magic in Jewellery,

…explore more articles on magic in jewellery from the Middle East here…

or download the free e-book on amulets and talismans!

This post is partly based on the chapter ‘The Evil Eye and Other Problems’ on magic and jewellery in my book Desert Silver.

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References

[1] Early, E. 1993. Baladi women of Cairo: playing with an egg and a stone. American University in Cairo Press, Cairo, p. 127

[2] Day, C. 1950. Knots and Knot Lore, in: Western Folklore, Vol 9, no. 3

[3] Masterman. E.W.G. 1901. Dress and Personal Adornment in Modern Palestine, in: The Biblical World, Vol. 18 No. 3

[4] Drower, E.S. 1937, The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran, p. 260

[5] An example is seen in V. Porter, 2017. Arabic and Persian Seals and Amulets in the British Museum, p. 179

[6] Nünlist, T, 2019. Enzauberte Amulettrollen, in: Günther, S. and D. Pielow (eds), Die Geheimnisse der Oberen und Unteren Welt: Magie im Islam zwischen Glaube und Wissenschaft, Brill, Leiden, p. 252

[7] Zvenkovsky, S. 1950. Zar and Tambura as practiced by the women of Omdurman, in: Sudan Notes and Records Vol. 31, no. 1, p. 81

[8] Like noted for example by Cameron Moffett, 2019, in The Amulets of Roman Wroxeter: Evidence for Everyday magic, in: Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Historical Society 94, p. 46

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Magic Squares

by dr. Sigrid van Roode | Magic & Amulets

the power of mathematics

Magic Squares

Updated Jan 17, 2024

What is a magic square? A magic square is a well-known variety of amulets based in numerology: a numerical arrangement that has magical meaning. Numbers are as meaningful as words in the symbolism of the Middle East, and so a magic square is considered a powerful amulet. They exist in many forms, and they also take the form of jewellery. Where do they come from, and how do they work?

The buduh-square: the most widely used magic square

The most widely used square is the ‘buduh’-square: an arrangement of the numbers 1 through 9 with 5 in the middle, that reads 15 in all directions. One example of this square is visible in the silver amulet featured in the gallery below: click to enlarge and see its details.

This square gets its name from the four letters on the corners of the square when noted down in the Abjad letter-numerals: b-d-w-h. Its powers were believed to be so strong that the name ‘buduh’ itself was enough to invoke that power. [1]

The number five in the centre of the basic magic square is significant: five is a number that carries a special meaning throughout the Middle East. See how this number is worked into jewellery in this article on numerology in jewellery.

The placement of the number five in the centre is also an indication of the universe, in symbolizing humankind in the middle of the four cardinal points.

Elaborating on this idea, the central number in any magic square is often considered to represent God in the centre of His creation. Some amulets leave this middle field blank out of respect for God, or simply write Allah or one of the 99 Names of God.

The magic square in this way becomes a symbol of God, holding the universe in order and controlling creation.

What is the history of magic squares?

The magic square has a very long history. The buduh-square is first encountered in a 9th or 10th century copy of the writings of Jabir ibn Hayyan, and is said to ease childbirth. [2] Its origins probably are much older and to be found in China, from where it traveled along the Silk Road to the Arab world. [3]

After the buduh-square, many other magical squares have been developed and worked into silver amulets. Their use is not limited to the Islamic world. A Christian version of a magical square can be found on the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona, where the numbers read 33 in all directions. In this square however some numbers are repeatedly used, while it is preferred to use the same number only once in a magical square.

The composition of magic squares is also not limited to 3 x 3 rows, but can be expanded as well. The example in the gallery above (click to enlarge for details) shows a magic square of 4 x 4 rows.

Magic squares as talisman and amulet

Magical squares are often used in jewellery, as amulet or talisman.

Pseudo-magic squares are also in use in jewellery. These are an imitation of a magic square, but then with symbols and numbers arranged without any specific order. The use of pseudo-magic squares is illustrative for the decline in meaning of a ‘true’ magic square: instead of the order of the universe, only the shape of the square is regarded as beneficial.

Elaborate, purpose-made magic squares are very personal and created for a specific goal, and often worn hidden from view. They are painted on garments, or worn on a necklace.

The magic square has been, and still is, in use throughout the Middle East in Islamic, Christian and Jewish tradition.

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Where to find more on amulets and magic in jewellery?

Check out the e-course on Amulets and Magic in Jewellery – there’s an entire section devoted to numerology and jewellery!

Explore more articles on amulets, charms and jewelry from the Middle East here…

…or download the free e-book on amulets from North Africa & the Middle East!

This post is based on the chapter ‘The Evil Eye and Other Problems’ in my book Desert Silver

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References

[1] Savage-Smith, E. 1997. Amulets and related talismanic objects, in: Raby, J. (ed) 1997. The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art. Vol. XII. The Nour Foundation, New York p. 106

[2] Kriss, R. & H. Kriss-Heinrich, 1962. Volksglaube im Bereich des Islam. Band II. Amulette, Zauberformeln und Beschwörungen. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, p. 84 relate that the square should be drawn on two linen bandages, that have to be shown to the pregnant woman after which they are placed underneath her feet.

[3] See Schuyler Cammann, Islamic and Indian Magic Squares Part I, in History of Religions Vol 8 No 3 (1969) pp 181-209 for more information about the Chinese origins of this square.

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Crescent and star symbolism

by dr. Sigrid van Roode | Magic & Amulets

magic of the skies

Crescent moon and star symbolism in jewellery

Updated November 21, 2025

The image of the crescent with one or a few stars is undoubtedly one of the most iconic visual elements of North Africa and South West Asia. It is present on banners, but also on jewellery: rings with this very same image have been around in the region for at least 2,000 years. What is the meaning of the crescent and star symbol?

When we look at jewellery, we see that not only amulets in the shape of crescents, but also depictions of stars and even the name of some jewellery items testify to the importance of the skies in both everyday life and magical tradition. In this post, I explore the historical layers of meaning behind the crescent and star motif in traditional jewellery.

The meaning of sun and moon in Middle Eastern jewellery

Both sun and moon appear often in Middle Eastern jewellery, because they were attributed with particular capacities. These were based on their properties.

Following analogous magic, the power of the warm life-giving rays of the sun was transferred to a person by wearing jewellery that carried an image of the sun. An example is the silver bracelet from Siwa shown above (click the image to enlarge it and see its details): this carries a sunburst morif on its central panel.

Another way of wearing the powers of the sun is in jewellery of materials that mimicked the colour of the sun, like gold or amber.

(off topic: amber has many other magical capacities, too, some of which may not be what you’d expect… click here to see the powers of amber as an amulet.)

The moon cycle was believed to be related to the female cycle, both of them being 28 days, and thus the imagery of the waxing moon carried notions of fertility and growth.

Silver, the colour associated with the moon, by analogy also held these same capacities. The combination of both silver and gold in a bracelet type from Morocco (shown above, click to enlarge the photo) reflects these ties: it is called ‘sun and moon’.

Lunar calendars and timekeeping: why the crescent matters

When it comes to jewellery, moon imagery takes precedence over that of the sun. One of the most obvious reasons for this is that the majority of North Africa and South West Asia makes use of a lunar calendar, and has done so for millennia. This is literally the way that people kept track of time.

In a lunar calendar, each month starts with the appearance of the new moon: the crescent marks a new beginning. This significance of the lunar calendar is also reflected in jewellery. It was a time-marker long before it became a symbol of Islam.

One type of pendant with a crescent moon and a star is called Hilal as-Shawwal. It visualizes the crescent moon that officially ends the month of Ramadan and ushers in the following month of Shawwal. This piece of jewellery is related to religious celebrations.

The crescent moon itself is often featured in jewellery. It refers to the moon as symbol of fertility, but also to the importance of the lunar calendar.

An antique silver pendant in the shape of a crescent and star, Syria or Palestine.

A silver hair clip from Oman, called halqa

Which star with the crescent? Venus, Sirius and the night sky in jewellery

With the crescent, often one or multiple stars are depicted. I believe this to refer not to one particular star: in the region, several bright stars are considered important for the definition of the agricultural calendar. The rising and setting of these stars marks the start of rain or drought seasons, and the beginning of sowing, planting and harvesting.

The most well-known of these is of course the planet Venus (technically not a star), which is clearly visible at dusk and dawn.

Another important bright star is Sirius. What is significant about Sirius? Already in ancient Egypt, the moment when Sirius was first visible on the eastern horizon just before sunrise in August marked the start of the inundation season. This was the season in which the Nile would flood, leaving rich, fertile soil behind. In Yemen, Sirius is an indicator of the hot dry season. [1]

The appearance at sunrise of the bright star Canopus, called Suhayl in Arabic, halfway October marked the start of the rainy season after summer and the start of dropping temperatures. [2] So, you see there is more to the age old image of crescent moon and stars than just a rendering of the sky: observing the stars was essential for everyday life.

The Seven Sisters: the Pleiades as seasonal signs and sky-marks

A star cluster that is of particular importance in jewellery is the Pleiades. The meaning of the Pleiades is their importance for early agriculture.

This group of stars is called al-Thurayya in Arabic and its appearance in the sky, related to the path of the moon, formed a clock for the passing of the seasons. They were very important for farmers: these would know when to sew or harvest by keeping track of the Pleiades.

One example is date farming, practised all over North Africa. When the Pleiades rise at sunrise on the eastern horizon, halfway May, the date trees start forming their green date buds. They are ripe when Sirius appears on the eastern horizon just before sunrise, in early August. [3]

Another example is the planting of winter grains, in Southwest Asia. When Pleiades rise in late October on the western horizon, at dusk, this is the best time to plant the winter grains. That is roughly two weeks after Suhayl had announced the start of the rainy season. When a farmer had seen Suhayl appear, he would wait for the Pleiades to follow: two weeks of rain would have made the soil saturated enough to receive the winter grains. [4]

It should therefore not be surprising to see this star cluster in jewellery. You will recognize it as a series of seven dots, grouped closely together in a circle, and often represented close to the sun or the moon. An example is in the gallery above: click to see all its detail!

Astrology and jewellery: the night sky as motif

This importance of stars in everyday life is reflected in the connection between the celestial and the terrestrial. Like astrology is used to predict the future or read one’s fortune, wearing jewellery with star and crescent symbolism was meaningful, too.

Bedouin in the Sinai and southern Palestine believed that every person had a corresponding star in the sky that exerted influence on that person’s fate. When a baby was sickly, this was expressed by saying that its ‘star is weak’. [5]

The rainy season that the Pleiades announce by their rising, and which brings prosperity for crops, makes this star cluster very auspicious. From this point of view, their appearance on jewellery also transfers some of that prosperity to the wearer.

Astrology and amulets in the Middle East and North Africa

The lunar calendar, in combination with the appearance of stars and planets such as discussed here, also was very important in the creation of amulets.

Just like the sun follows its path across the zodiac, the moon has its own path and also its own zodiac. There are 28 stops on its path, in which the moon stays for about two weeks. Each stop is governed by a star or constellation. Based on that combination of stars and zodiac, each stop or station was believed to have positive or negative energy, and was associated with its own fragrance or bukhūr.

Just one example to show you how that works: the Pleiades are housed in the third house, and associated with bukhūr of flax seed. When the moon traveled through this section of the sky, this was seen as an excellent time to get together (as the Pleiades form a cluster of several stars), for travel and to bring matters to the attention of higher-ups. [6]

Crescent and stars in jewellery: a tradition of millennia

If all this talk of stars, star clusters and lunar trajectories confuses you, that’s perectly ok! It is complicated: studying the heavens is both an art and a science with intricate calculations and observations. A glimpse of this world is visible in jewellery.

What I wanted to show you very briefly in this post is that the depiction of the moon and stars in jewellery and beyond is not just ornamental or a simple rendering of the celestial bodies: there is an entire world, both practical and spiritual, behind these.

Pendants, rings, necklaces and other forms of jewellery form a material expression of both practical and magical knowledge of the heavens that is slowly fading.

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Where can I learn more about astrology and amulets in the Middle East?

More on the magical background of jewellery? Download your free e-book here, read more articles, or jump right in and enjoy the e-course!

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References

[1] Varisco D.M. 1993. The agricultural marker stars in Yemeni folklore, in: Asian Folklore Studies 52, pp. 110-142.

[2] Bailey, C. 1974. Bedouin Star-Lore in Sinai and the Negev, in: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and Asian Studies Vol. 37 No. 3, pp. 580-596.

[3] idem, p. 587.

[4] idem, p. 590.

[5] Abu-Rabia, A. & N. Khalil 2012. Mourning Palestine. Death and Grief Rituals; in: Anthropology of the Middle East Vol. 7. No. 2, 1-18, pp. 12-13.

[6] Varisco, D.M. 2017. Illuminating the lunar mansions (manāzil al-qamar) in Shams al-ma’ārif, in: Arabica 64, pp. 487-530, p. 497, 503.

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Magical knowledge

by dr. Sigrid van Roode | Magic & Amulets

levels of knowledge

Magical knowledge

There are effects of jewellery that everyone knows about and that practically go without saying, and there are effects for which more specialist training is needed. But who knows what, and how did they learn? There is a shifting amount of information on the part of both maker and wearer. And what is more: what do we miss?

Levels of knowledge

1 – General protection. This is the most widespread level of knowledge: literally everyone recognizes these, no secrets to be found here. General protection comes in general shapes, like triangles, circles, dots, hands, eyes, main colours and tassels, to name but a few. Their use in jewellery is so self-evident that they are present as standard part of a set decoration scheme: they are not adapted to individual requests but rather form the backbone of the visual language of jewellery.

2 – Reaching a general goal. When a person runs into problems of a general nature, the knowledge of someone who has dealt with these is needed. Here, we enter the world of wise women. They will know which colour stimulates breastfeeding, how to avert chronic headaches, what to do in case of jaundice and what to in case of infertility, fever or matters of the heart. [1] They keep and share the stories and songs that go with each remedy, colour and pattern. The reputation of these women as healers may extend through word of mouth to considerable distances, but is in general limited to family and wider social circles only.

3- Reaching a specific goal. Finally, when a specific goal is to be reached, we shift into the world of purpose-made amulets. For these types of adornment literacy is often required, a wider knowledge of the calculation of spells and numbers, of ingredients and celestial constellations.

Transmitting knowledge

These three levels of knowledge come with their own way of transmitting them. [2] Information about general protection is so common that you would be immersed in this while growing up in your community. This is called horizontal transmission. The level of knowledge elder women had accumulated, would be passed on between generations, from mother to daughter: a vertical transmission. And finally, specific knowledge requires talent, years of training and study that only a few complete.

The local factor

The second type of knowledge, which is used to combat challenges of a general nature, is the most difficult to interpret as a cultural outsider. A cultural outsider in this case is not just someone from a different country, but could be someone from as nearby as the next village. This is because this type of knowledge is characterized by a high degree of locality. It is shared within the family, or in wider circles within a village or clan. Local knowledge also incorporates the natural environment: trees, wells and other prominent features of the landscape often form an intrinsic part of the remedy. A certain stone for example must be sourced from a particular wadi, while wells and trees are said to possess powers that could amplify the efficacy of an amulet.

Vanishing worlds

It is also the type of knowledge that is vanishing the most. For general patterns in jewellery, early descriptions sometimes mention their explanation and meaning. Written amulets are based on magical works that are centuries old and continue to be available. Local knowledge however has not nearly as often been described or even paid attention to. [3] For my current PhD-research, I have been working through the jewellery collections of a number of museums. In the few instances where the precise uses of amulets have been documented, an incredibly wide world opened up that would not have revealed itself by its materiality alone. Thousands of seemingly insignificant pieces like pebbles, bone fragments or pieces of wood alongside coloured beads, coins and pendants protected their wearers and helped them heal from a variety of conditions such as joint aches, back aches, deafness, eye diseases and possession.

Similar, but not the same

It is this local factor that is often underestimated when amuletic jewellery is described. What carries meaning in one place does not automatically carry the same meaning in another: it is a bit much to claim the entire Arab world, with all its variety in peoples, religions and lifestyles, attaches the exact same meaning to a particular material. Of course, there are colours and materials that are broadly recognized for their capacities, such as red and blue or silver and gold. There is however another world beneath the surface of beaded necklaces, headdresses and natural materials set in silver where local knowledge makes all the difference. I’m working on an article on these locally used jewellery items: it’s through the magical capacities of jewellery items that the unwritten stories of a local community reveal themselves!

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References

[1] An example is how women in Siwa oasis, Egypt, keep a collection of useful stones that remedy a variety of conditions, as described in Vale, M.M. 2011. Sand and Silver. Jewellery, Costume and Life in Siwa Oasis. York Publishing Services, York

[2] For an overview of knowledge and transmission, see the exhibition publication Secrecy: who’s allowed to know what. Museum der Kulturen, Basel

[3] See for example Popper-Giveon, Abu Rabia & Ventura 2014. White stone to blue bead, in: Material Religion Volume 10, issue 2, pp. 134-136 where this problem is designated

Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. She considers jewellery heritage and a historic source. She has authored several books on jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, and on archaeological jewellery. Sigrid has lectured for the Society of Jewellery Historians, the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden and the Sultan Qaboos Cultural Center, among many others. She curates exhibitions and teaches online courses on jewellery from North Africa & Southwest Asia.

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