The Maria Theresia Thaler

Coins in jewellery

The Maria Theresia Thaler in Middle Eastern jewellery

Published Feb 26, 2024

The Austrian Maria Theresia Thaler was to become the most widespread and well-known coin in Africa and Asia. It is the first international coin, and it was particularly popular in the Middle East and North Africa. What is the story behind this popular coin?

The Maria Theresia Thaler: its history

The Maria Theresia Thaler gets its name from Habsburg heiress Maria Theresia. Maria Theresia ascended to the throne of the Habsburg empire in Vienna aged 23, on the death of her father Charles VI. She was crowned Queen of Hungary in 1741, Queen of Bohemia in 1743, and bore the title of Empress from 1745, when her husband became Holy Roman Emperor Francis I. From 1741 onwards, she had her own coins minted.

Maria Theresia ruled for forty years. She had sixteen children, one of which was the ill-fated Marie-Antoinette who would, much later, be beheaded in the French Revolution. But what she really managed to pull off was improving the economic situation of the empire. When she came to the throne, it had serious debts, and it took a determined CFO to get the empire afloat again.

From 1753, the Maria Theresia Thaler became increasingly popular; the empress officially announced the silver content of this and other coins to be minted in Bavaria and Austria, and set the exchange rates and the design standards in a treaty with Bavaria.

Being officially guaranteed and very hard to forge due to the intricacies of the design, the coin quickly became much sought after by traders and merchants.

What does the name thaler mean?

The word thaler refers to the Joachimsthal (meaning Joachims’ Valley) in Bohemia, and it was here that silver was mined and minted into large silver coins. After the source of the silver, they were called thalers. Soon this German word became the generic term for basically any large silver coin and, as such, was quickly absorbed into various other languages. And you are very familiar with it: this word became ‘dollar’ in English.

Maria Theresia Thaler: enduring heritage

When Maria Theresia died in 1780, the coin was still in such high demand that it continued to be struck, forever bearing the date of 1780. These are called restrikes. It was accepted as official currency in Austria until 1858, when it continued to be in use as official trade coinage, but no longer as domestic currency. Since then, the coin has been in almost continuous production.

It played an important role in the coffee trade, was used in World Wars I and II to pay North-African allies and has acted as official currency innumerable times. Today, it is still used in the markets of Oman as a solid weight to measure silver objects. Actually, it is still produced by the Vienna Mint, and estimates have anywhere between 300 million and a staggering 800 million MTTs in existence today.

Maria Theresia Thaler: its many names

In European shorthand, the Maria Theresia Thaler is often abbreviated to MTT.

The MTT was the most popular coin in circulation in North Africa and the Middle East and went by many names: Abu Tayr (Father of Birds) referring to the imperial eagle; Abu Nuqta (Father of Dots) a reference to the number of pearls on the brooch of the empress; and Abu Rish (Father of Feathers) a name suggested by the eagle’s many tail feathers.

All these distinctive features were used to check the authenticity of the coin. Because, as I will show you later, this coin was imitated as a large scale. In purely monetary terms, the coin was referred to as Riyal Faransawi, (French Riyal) or Riyal Nimsawi, (Austrian Riyal).

Maria Theresia Thalers in jewellery from North Africa and the Middle East

The MTT is used in jewellery from the Maghreb all the way to Southeast Asia. You’ll find it in three ways:

1 – As complete coin. The coins are added to headdresses, necklaces, face veils and even rings. They may have bails added to them to facilitate stringing, or holes pierced into them to sew them firmly to a textile backing.

Usually, the visible side of the thaler is the reverse, depicting the eagle and coat of arms; since representations of human beings are forbidden in Islam, the coin is usually worn with the effigy of the empress on the underside.

2 – Fashioned into another shape. In this case, the coin has been altered, but can still be recognized. Examples are the crosses from Ethiopia, where the central element of the coin can still be seen in the centre (so the portrait of the empress or the coat of arms).

3 – Invisibly. Unbeknownst to most people, the thaler even has an invisible presence. Its high-grade silver content made it the material of choice for a lot of silver jewellery. Occasionally, the coin was fashioned into a pendant, on which traces of the original can still be seen, but the coins were more commonly melted down and reused completely.

Most thalers in jewellery are restrikes, all bearing the date of 1780. That does not mean they are actually from 1780: in fact, they may be relatively new.

Just like the pillar dollar, this coin was imitated very often, too. This was to serve more as a status symbol than as actual currency, and so you’ll find imitations in a varying range of success.

The Maria Theresia Thaler: the most popular coin in jewellery

You’ll see MTT’s used in jewellery very, very often! Sometimes, they have sat together for so long that it reflects in their wear patterns, and sometimes they are so new that the design is still crisp and fresh. Both old and new coins, as well as their imitations, reflect the importance of a steady source of silver for both economical purposes and jewellery: a tradition that has continued for 3 centuries!

This article is based on my book Desert Silver.

—

More posts on the stories objects may hold? Browse them all here!

Join the Jewellery List and receive new articles, jewellery news and more in your inbox!

More on the use of coins in jewellery from the Middle East and North Africa? Check out the course on Dowry & Status!

—

References

[1] Although the pillar dollar was a coin of equal importance, many more books have been dedicated to the Maria Theresa Thaler. See for example Gervais, R. 1982. Pre-Colonial Currencies: A Note on the Maria Theresa Thaler, in: African Economic History No. 11 and Pond, S. 1941. The Maria Theresa Thaler. A famous Trade Coin, in: Bulletin of the Business Historical Society Vol. 15 No. 2. A very helpful book is Semple, C. 2005. A Silver Legend: the story of the Maria Theresa Thaler, Barzan Publishing.

[2] Vale describes how in Siwa oasis silver coins, obtained after selling a good harvest, were sent to the silversmiths to be melted down and turned into jewellery. See Vale 2011, p. 32.

Would you like to quote this article? Please do! Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

Scented paste jewellery of North Africa

by dr. Sigrid van Roode | Objects

Skhab beads

Scented paste jewellery of North Africa

Updated November 25, 2024

Beads made of scented paste—known in the Maghreb as skhab—are among the most evocative items of personal adornment in North Africa. In this blog post I explore scented‑paste jewellery from Tunisia and Algeria, examining how fragrance, craft and cultural meaning come together in these unique beads. Rather than a simple inventory of pieces, we’ll look at their making, their wearing, and their place in Maghrebi social life.

Wearing scent: origins and cultural context in the Maghreb

Why wear scented jewellery in the first place? For this, we need to look at the role fragrance plays culturally. Fragrance in North Africa is much more than just spritzing on a perfume.

In informal religion, scent was considered powerful as an amulet. Incense in general was believed to keep malevolent spirits at a distance. [1] And because agreeable scents were seen as a manifestation of benign beings, wearing fragrance was a powerful way of keeping evil away.

The use of scent and personal grooming falls in the category of ‘recommended’ behaviour for Muslims, although its application varies per branch of Islam. Several hadīth underline the beneficial effects of perfume, relating how the Prophet also scented his clothing by fumigation and never refused perfumes. [2]

On important religious occasions, personal cleanliness was mandatory. This extended not only to the body, but also to clothing worn: an example from early 20^th century Morocco observes that clothing was perfumed with rosewater and orange blossom water or fumigated with incense. [3]

Photocollage showing antique photo of a Tunisian woman and scented herbs, woods and flowers

Necklace of scented beads from Tunisia, with gold beads.

Scented paste in the Maghreb: beads

In Tunisia and Algeria, and to a lesser extent in Morocco and Libya as well, scent was added to jewellery in a beautiful way. [4] Here, a scented paste is worked into beads, generally called skhab. [5]

The beads were produced at home, but you could also buy them in specialized ateliers in the sūqs. In home production, recipes were handed down from mother to daughter and adapted to personal tastes. [6] As a result, the fragrance of these beads would be the signature scent of the wearer and her family.

Collage of a vintage photo of an Algerian lady mixing herbs against a background of colourful flowers and herbs.

The craft of skhab: ingredients

What did these beads smell like…? The bouquet itself was created by carefully selecting and combining aromatic ingredients. Cedarwood, sandalwood and ‘ūd created warm woody undertones. Cloves, saffron, rosemary and thyme were among the herbs used to add a spicy layer, while roses, preferably the strong scenting Rosa damascena, jasmine, lavender and patchouli added floral notes.

All of these were dried and pulverized. Pulverizing itself would take up a significant amount of time, as the powder had to be as finely ground as possible.

This was before the blender existed: everything had to be ground by hand! You’d want the fragrant powder to be as fine as possible: any larger lumps would present a problem in the polishing of the beads, later in the process.

So, after much grinding and regrinding, the fragrant powder was then slowly mixed with rosewater or orange blossom water.

When all of the water was absorbed, and this could take up to a week (!) it would be ground again. That procedure was repeated until a paste was created. [7]

Finally, a binding agent such as odoriferous resin, date paste or Arabic gum was added. You would boil the mixture slowly on a low fire, until it turned into a smooth paste.

Scented paste of North Africa: bead-making

While the paste was still warm, and gave off its sumptuous scent, women would start shaping the beads. The simplest beads were spherical, but experienced hands created a variety of shapes like hearts, fish, stars, crescents and flowers. Their size varied from tiny beads to quite sizable examples.

All these beads would be spread out on a tray and put somewhere to rest and dry, like in the window sill or on a table. Never in direct sunlight though: that would cause them to dry too fast and they would break.

When the beads had dried for a few days, they were still soft enough to be perforated, yet solid enough to keep their shape and not fall apart during the process.

After a month, the beads would be polished smooth and strung with a variety of other beads such as glass, coral, amber and silver into necklaces, or worn as earrings, hair ornaments and brooches. [8]

Creating these beads was an entirely female affair. It also served as introduction into a woman’s world for the daughters of the family: while wearing these beads was considered inappropriate for girls, the long days spent creating them was a time for chatting, gossiping and learning about the intimacies of married life.

Scented paste in adornment: hairstyles and bracelet lining

Scented paste was not only used for beads! Another practical way of applying it is on the inside of bracelets. The movements of the bracelet over the warm skin in would release the fragrance.

An additional benefit was that the thick layer of paste smoothed out any rough edges and prevented the skin from getting pinched between several heavy bracelets.

Remnants of this paste may sometimes still be visible on the inside of a bracelet: as this is not dirt, but an essential part of its life, I recommend checking for it before you start cleaning jewellery: see more about that here.

Scented paste was also worked into hairstyles, notably in Morocco: here, too, remnants of scented paste can still be found on ornaments worn in the hair. The gallery above shows such an example: click to enlarge the image, and see how the patches of ‘dirt’ may actually be leftovers from something that once smelled divine!

Social and ritual significance of scented paste beads: weddings and women

In Tunisia and Algeria, the scented beads were worn by a bride for the first time: their use is specifically for married women. They reflect the intimacy of married life and carry a strong connotation of sensuality.

The importance of these is well explained by an Algerian woman: ‘A woman that does not possess a necklace of scented beads, is not a woman’ – unmarried girls did not wear fragrant beads, as their sensual capacities were inappropriate for their social position. [9]

That these necklaces were more than just ornaments, is illustrated by the cultural restrictions surrounding their use. Algerian women did not wear their scented bead necklaces when their husband was away; when he was absent for a longer period of time, the necklaces were stored in a box.[10]

Even just showing them to female friends was done very privately: you would not want another man accidentally to catch a whiff of their scent. [11]

Sumptuous scented beads witha gold meskia perfume pendant

Scented paste beads today: tradition, production and trade

Today, the large necklaces with scented paste are still a very important part of weddings in the Maghreb. Scented beads are now mainly produced by specialized ateliers in the sūqs.[12] These ateliers run a good business, as procuring these beads is a necessity for engagement and wedding festivities. You’ll find them strung with lavish perfume containers known as meskia: see more about these delicious jewels here.

Wearing scented beads is an old tradition that is still in use, and that is much more than just aesthetics: perfume jewellery is a profound cultural expression.

More about the many uses of scent, wearing fragrant jewels and the art of incense fumigation is in the e-course Scents of the Middle East: a full exploration of the invisible side of adornment!

Collage of a smiling woman from Egypt, wearing gold earrings, with dewy rose petals, jasmine and lilies. A bright yellow text box reads 'Scents of the Middle East'

—

Want to learn how fragrance plays a role in jewellery and adornment? My book Silver & Frankincense explores this in depth!

More posts on jewellery and amulets? Browse them all here!

Join the Jewellery List and receive new articles, jewellery news and more in your inbox!

—

References

[1] Interestingly, in early Christianity the opposite was the case: incense was believed to attract demons. This stance towards incense was related to the Roman practice of burning incense to honour the gods and the emperor, and only changed centuries later in Late Antiquity. See Lallemand 2008.

[2] Kanafani 1983, pp. 293-294.

[3] Westermarck 1911, p. 131.

[4] Mershen 2009, p. 59; Zimmerle 2014, pp. 416-417; Becker 2000, p. 182.

[5] According to Eudel’s Dictionnaire des Bijoux, the name is particularly used in Algeria and Tunisia for scented beads; in other regions it generally indicates a necklace.

[6] Filali 2001; Benfoughal 1997, p. 91-92.

[7] Opper 2015, p. 22. The process could take up to 40 days. See these videos by Charlotte Dakin-Norris to make your own!

[8] Opper 2015, p. 22.

[9] Tamzali 1984, p. 41; Benfoughal 1997, p. 139. In Algeria’s Kabylia, however, girls would wear a necklace made of amber called lūban or ‘incense’. Although the necklace itself did not carry scent, the name hints at the stage in life preceding the one in which she soon would wear real scented jewellery. Eudel 1906 Dictionnaire des Bijoux, p. 121.

[10] Benfoughal 1997, p. 139.

[11] Benfoughal 1997, p. 142.

[12] Gargouri-Sethom & Perez 2005, p. 123-125.

The Bedouin Silver blog gives credit where credit is due! Transparent referencing and citing sources helps us all grow. Would you like to do the same and quote this article? Here’s how:

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

This blog is free: if you’d like to support independent research, please consider enrolling in a course or a jewellery talk. The proceeds directly fund my research work: thank you so much for your support!

Djerba gilded pendants

by dr. Sigrid van Roode | Objects

Tunisian jewellery

Gilded and enameled pendants from Djerba

Published Feb 07, 2024

A selection of pendants from Tunisia, that show how jewellery may be reflecting the world of its wearers in its design. These illustrate the relation you might not think of immediately: that between jewellery, and architecture.

A set of Djerba pendants

In the gallery above, you’ll see a series of photos of a collection of square pendants. They were collected in Sousse, Tunisia, and clicking on the images will enlarge them, so you can take in their gorgeous details.

What do we know of these? All of them are made of silver. The majority have been gilded, and some are finely embellished with enamel. Enameling is characteristic of jewellery from Djerba: according to Gargouri-Sethom the art of enameling almost disappeared after the second World War, when many Jewish craftspeople moved to Israel. [1]

These pendants would be worn in sets of five, on a necklace with coral and lapis lazuli beads strung on woolen cord. The ensemble is called malāb (sometimes also spelled malaab) and was worn in Djerba, Tunisia. [2] A red fabric backing makes the design stand out even more: in an original stringing, it would match the red woolen cord.

Djerba necklace: reading the design

That design is after the mihrab or prayer niche. [3] This is the niche in every mosque that indicates the direction of Mecca. That is the direction that is prayed in, so this is a primary architectural element. It is often beautifully ornamented. Including it in jewellery brings the necklace and its wearer into the realm of faith and religion.

And there are more elements that serve to enhance its meaning. As you see (click on an image to enlarge it), each pendant repeats the mihrab motif three times, and has three dangles.

The presence of five of these on the necklace is also significant: it refers to the 5 daily prayers and the 5 pillars of Islam. ⁠The deliberate inclusion of the number five is another form of wearing a khamsa.

See why a khamsa does not always have to be in the shape of a hand here.

The red fabric and woolen cord also help keep evil at a distance: the colour red has been used as primary colour to fight evil for millennia.

Djerba pendants: the value of collecting

As you see, these are all different, even if ever so slightly: their collectors loved the shapes and collected them for their differences, not to complete a set.⁠ That is another angle of collecting than striving for completion and perfection: the choices you make as a collector have an impact on what a collection is going to look like.

So, these may not contain a complete set, but they certainly do hold information value. They showcase the variety and the skill of the craftsmen that made these, and in that way this collection adds to our understanding of Tunisian jewellery beautifully.⁠

And they also tell us what happened to these necklaces. Eventually they were broken up and their beautiful coral and lapis lazuli beads sold individually. The pendants have been sold separately as well for a long time, and found their way into the available literature as such, too. [4]

So you see, even loose bits and pieces may contribute to the history of its wearers!

These pendants are in the Van Dam-Canton Tunisian heritage collection of the Qilada Foundation.⁠

—

Explore the world of jewellery in the easy, online courses!

More posts on jewellery pieces in detail? Browse them all here!

Join the Jewellery List and receive new articles, jewellery news and more in your inbox!

—

References

[1] S. Gargouri-Sethom1986, Le Bijou Traditionnel en Tunisie, Edisud, p. 50.

[2] N. Baklouti, Les bijoux d’Argent de Tunisie, Office National de l’ Artisanat, p. 124.

[3] N. Baklouti, Les bijoux d’Argent de Tunisie, Office National de l’ Artisanat p. 124; Les Bijoux de Tunisie, Dunes Editions, p. 146.

[4] Les Bijoux de Tunisie, Dunes Editions, p. 152 also shows individual, different pendants as collected items.

Would you like to quote this article? Please do! Here’s how:

Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only.

Kabylia necklaces: a history

by dr. Sigrid van Roode | Objects

History in jewellery

Kabylia silver and coral necklaces

Published Jan 29, 2024

Silver, enamel and coral necklaces from Kabylia in Algeria have evolved significantly over time. And the difference between older and newer pieces is a story in itself. These necklaces show us the importance of jewellery as a historic source, so keep on reading for a history of loyalty, betrayal and pride.

Splendid Kabyle jewellery in coral, enamel and silver.

Kabylia jewellery

In this article, I will zoom in on a type of necklace called azrar or tazlaqt. [1] Its design and workmanship are characteristic for the Kabylia region in Algeria.

In older literature, you may still find references to Greater and Smaller Kabylia (Grande or Petite Kabylie): drop those, as these names were never used by the people of the region themselves. These are divisions by the French administration. Kabylia it is.

The jewellery of Kabylia is distinctly recognizable by its fine enameling in blue, yellow, red and green and its abundant use of coral. You’ll see some examples above: tap the photos to enlarge them.

These necklaces evolved over the past century into forms that are different in execution, but similar in their design and symbolism. And that is where the story is!

I’ll start with older pieces, compare these to more recent versions, and tell you the history behind them.

An antique Kabyle necklace with coral and silver pendants

Three necklaces from Kabylia with coral and silver beads, enameling and pendants.

Kabyle necklaces: before 1962

The pieces above (click to enlarge the photos and see the details) are all older. The large necklace with the many pendants in the first image is strung on black thread. It consists of a flexible, heavy silver band, made of solid silver beads strung together, from which large silver pendants dangle.

The pendants have been enameled, set with coral cabochons, and chunky pieces of branch coral have been added in a zig zag pattern on top. The round pendants are coins (see the detailed photo), on which enamel, coral and filigree have been mounted.

The smaller necklaces in the third image are made of the same elements: solid silver beads, large coral and silver enameled pendants strung on thread.

What they have in common is that they all use heavy silver, large coral beads and sizeable pendants.

Finely worked silver and coral necklace from Kabylia, after 1962.

Detail of an intricate coral, enamel and silver Kabyle necklace.

Kabyle necklaces: after 1962

After 1962, the execution of necklaces changed. Above are two examples and their details: click to enlarge them.

In the first example, you see how the design of the previous generation is still closely followed. The three rows of solid silver beads have been replaced by 8-shaped links: through the central application on the links and their vertical position, they mirror the appearance of the older necklaces. But instead of strung on thread, this necklace is made of silver links.

There also new shapes of pendants added to the mix: the all-silver tiny domes with filigree and the enameled hand pendants are newer inventions. The lozenge shapes composed of enameled circles are also newer forms. The round pendants are no longer mounted on coins.

The workmanship on these is very detailed, as you see: this is an abundant necklace in its many dangles as well as their individual intricacy.

The second example shows further changes. Here, the colour scheme of the enameling has been expanded: those shades of bright green and orange yellow are different. We see other pendants of silver appear, the coral cabochons have become even smaller and fewer.

The changes in this jewellery have everything to do with Algeria’s recent history.

Kabyle jewellery: the story of fierce women

From 1954 to 1962, Algeria fought for its independence from France. Many women hid their jewels in these times of unrest and war, as they were afraid French troops might take them on one of their many raids.

After Algeria finally became an independent nation in 1962, the new state needed funds to rebuild. Makilam in her book l’ Argent de la Lune recounts how jewellery formed part of that effort. Women donated their jewellery to Fonds National de Solidarité (National Solidarity Fund) as financial contribution to the rebuilding of their country. And those jewels were not seen again, until…

…they appeared in an exhibition in Algiers in 1996. That exposition lasted only for a week, as it led to protests and anger. Thirty years earlier, women had fought alongside men, they had hidden their jewellery from the French, given it voluntarily to the state – and now it turned out their jewellery had not been used for rebuilding Algeria at all. It had been slumbering in a vault for over 3 decades. [2]

Changes in Kabyle necklaces

These lighter necklaces fit into the global development that we see everywhere form the 1960s onwards: traditional jewellery becomes less and less used, changes appearance and disappears. But in this case, there is more to the change in jewellery.

The donation of Algerian women after independence was not just that of heritage, but of finances as well: these jewels formed a woman’s personal asset, her savings’ account for everything from hospital treatments, dowries for sons or even life on her own after divorce or the death of her husband.

Imagine voluntarily emptying your bank account and donating it to the state, only to find out they did not use it at all!

This financial aspect is a second reason why later necklaces are much smaller. That is not just a matter of changing fashions, but also because these were less costly. They are lighter and hold less silver and corals.

And you’ll remember Kabyle women had not sold their jewellery to the Solidarity Fund, they had given it away – leaving them with considerably less to spend on new jewellery.

This is how jewellery reminds us that it is part of everyday life, not just simply adornment. It is so much part of cultural identity and society itself, that it plays an active part in fundamental historic shifts.

Kabyle jewellery today

These jewels are still closely related to the identity of Kabylia. The light and easy to wear necklaces (and other pieces of jewellery, of course) are still being made and proudly worn. [3] They continue to develop and change along with its wearers, and carry an ancient tradition into the future.

—

More posts on jewellery, cultures and people? Browse them all here!

Join the Jewellery List and receive new articles, jewellery news and more in your inbox!

—

References

[1] T. Benfoughal (ed) 2003. Bijoux & Parures d’Algèrie, p. 69. Paul Eudel in his Dictionnaire des Bijoux from 1909, p. 212, only mentions tazleqt as generic name for necklace in Kabylia. See for spelling differences this article.

[2] See Makilam L’ Argent de la Lune, p. 30 – 31.

[3] See examples of modern designs here and here, where tradition and cultural identity are combined with today’s lifestyle.

The Bedouin Silver blog gives credit where credit is due! Transparent referencing and citing sources helps us all grow. Would you like to do the same and quote this article? Here’s how:

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Draa Valley necklace

by dr. Sigrid van Roode | Objects

Amazigh Berber jewellery

Amber and coral necklace from the Draa Valley, Morocco

Published Jan 17, 2024

A coral and amber stunner in the signature arrangement of the Draa Valley, Morocco. In this article, I’m zooming in on its composition, its meaning and its many lives.

A glorious Draa Valley amber and coral necklace with colourful woollen tassels

Close-up of a spectacular Amazigh Berber necklace from the Draa Valley in Morocco, showing its abundance in coral, amber and trade beads

An Amazigh necklace from the Draa Valley

You’ll find this type of necklace presented as Berber or Amazigh necklace: while ‘Berber’ is the word almost everyone knows, ‘Amazigh’ is actually how its people prefer themselves referred to. I’ll go into the reasons behind that in another post: this article analyzes the meaning and history of this beautiful piece of jewellery.

This huge, gorgeous Berber necklace was worn in the Draa Valley, Morocco. As you see in the gallery above (click the image to enlarge it), it’s made of eight strands of large branch coral beads and a central arrangement of chunky amber beads flanked by shells.⁠

This necklace was worn by a married woman. As its individual components, notably the sizeable pieces of branch coral and amber, are quite expensive, the necklace was also a show of wealth. [1]

Draa Valley necklace: amulets and beads

Between the coral abundance is a treasure of other beads. Amazonite, agate, glass, shell and smaller amber beads are strung in with a variety of beads and pendants in low grade silver: there are coins, cones, cornerless cubes, bell-shaped beads and a few amulets.⁠ [2]

The amber holds several meanings: this is where you’ll find specific information about the hidden powers of amber in Berber jewellery. Amazonite beads were believed to be associated with fertility, because of its green colour: an association found with many green stones.

Ancient trade beads are a testimony to the long history of trade and commerce in the region. As are the polished brown and green agate beads, that were imported on a large scale from Idar Oberstein in Germany.

And it holds several low-grade silver beads, amulets and pendants. These are lovely in their variety, and are randomly strung in with the rest: this is where you’ll find the personal preference of the wearer reflected most closely, as these are the items that she would have selected herself.

She may have collected various beads and pendants over time. They may also come from other pieces of jewellery that had fallen apart – and that is another factor to consider when looking at these necklaces: they fell apart at some point during their lives.

Berber jewellery from the Draa Valley: its many lives

This piece is still in its original stringing. But what does that really mean? I think it’s important to consider that this is the last stringing with the purpose of wearing it within the culture itself.

‘Last’, because during its life, it would have been restrung multiple times anyway. Its threads would become worn after years of beads weighing them down. Eventually one of them would break, and then it would be restrung. That was also the perfect occasion to add some more beads and other pendants. So, with several actions of restringing, which ‘incarnation’ is the original one…? That’s why I think looking at its purpose is an important factor in determining whether stringing is ‘original’.

Another indicator of ‘original stringing’ is its closure, so let’s go into that next.
⁠

" Necklaces have several lives: they are restrung multiple times, each time with tiny differences to its arrangement and composition'

Draa Valley necklace details: its closure

What is even more remarkable about this Amazigh necklace is that it still has its original closure: the two large tassels of woolen cords. These are quite heavy themselves, and form a perfect counterweight to the weight of the beads.⁠

They are held together by a woolen band. Like a scrunchy in your hair, that is what keeps the two heavy tassels together. The idea behind the tassels is not to knot them, that would be uncomfortable to wear, but to simply tie them closely together.

There are other cultural reasons to avoid knots in general: you’ll find those here.

You may find similar necklaces outfitted with a simple knot-and-loop closure: that is a later alteration to make these necklaces more suited to the taste of collectors who’d want to wear them. And that brings me to their afterlife.

Draa Valley necklace: its afterlife

Necklaces like these, in their original setup, are becoming increasingly rare. Many of these have been broken up in the past to be sold, as its individual coral, amazonite and amber beads may fetch a handsome price.

You’ll also find modern arrangements reflecting the style of the Draa Valley, sometimes put together with antique elements and sometimes with entirely newly made beads.

Some of these are used in traditional dance performances (you don’t want your antique piece snapping apart on stage, after all) both in Morocco itself and abroad. As such, the design of this necklace is still communicating the cultural identity of its wearers, and I think that is a beautiful thing!

—

Explore the world of jewellery in the easy, online courses!

More posts on jewellery pieces in detail? Browse them all here!

Join the Jewellery List and receive new articles, jewellery news and more in your inbox!

—

References

[1] Berber Women of Morocco, Fondation Pierre Bergé – Yves Saint Laurent 2014, p. 73.

[2] See the chapter Jewelry Art by Cynthia Becker in Berber Women of Morocco, Fondation Pierre Bergé – Yves Saint Laurent 2014.

Would you like to quote this article? Please do! Here’s how:

Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only.

Omani silver braid ornaments

by dr. Sigrid van Roode | Objects

Hair jewellery from Oman

Omani silver braid ornaments

Published Jan 15, 2024

A look at braid ornaments from Oman today! There is a wealth or hair- and head ornaments from Oman, and in this article, I will focus only two of those: the braid ornament called halqa, and the braid ornaments known as athaqil. How were they worn? What is the meaning of these silver hair ornaments? And there’s a particular use of these you may not expect…!

Omani braid ornaments: the halqa plait ornament

In the Interior of Oman, a large round ornament was worn in the hair. It looks like a large circle in silver, with a T-shaped division in the centre. These were woven into the hair itself. Imagine a series of long, fine braids, which were kept together by an artificial plait of goat’s hair. That would have been woven through horizontally, also passing through the silver hair ornament. [1]

Photocollage of a vintage photo of a Baluch Lady from Muscat and the Muscat cityscape, made by Sigrid van Roode

Omani silver braid ornaments: the halqa clip

Smaller versions of this ornament were not worked into the braids themselves, but attached to their ends, like a clip. [2] These usually are decorated with an image of the crescent moon and a large single star. Because of the pin on their reverse, they were also worn as brooches: the image above shows a woman wearing such a clip on her dress, closing the collar. These are multifunctional items!

A set of five silver athaqil hair ornaments, Oman

Omani braid ornaments: athaqil pendants

Another way of adorning plaits was by attaching small ornaments to their ends. This was a tradition Dhofar, in southern Oman. These ornaments are called athqul, or athaqil in the plural. [3] You will know them in silver, but they also existed in simpler forms such as leather with cowrie shells or entirely beaded forms. [4]

So how were these worn? They were not attached to the braids directly, but suspended on black woolen cords that were then plaited along with the braid itself. [5]

According to Morris and Shelton, the number of silver braid ornaments differed with who was wearing them: unmarried girls would wear them in sets of 6, and married women in sets of 8 or even 10. [6] That number is often repeated in literature, but Ruth Hawley mentions 20 years earlier that girls would wear a set of 10 pendants. [7]

I believe the number of ornaments may not have been based primarily on the wearers’ married or unmarried status, but rather on the financial means of her family. For married women, this amount of extra silver was also part of their own savings’ account.

A silver hair clip from Oman, called halqa

Braid ornaments as amulets

Braid ornaments carry meaning as amulets, too. That is because of their decoration and execution, but also because of their close association with hair itself.

First, the placement of these braid ornaments is important. They hang on the back of the wearer. This is a vulnerable place, because how will you know a jinn is not attacking you from behind? Many cultures adorn the back of a person to protect them from unseen attackers, and that is one of the purposes these Omani braid ornaments serve.

The silver plait-clips often carry the motif of the crescent with a star. This is in itself a very old symbol that predates Islam: click here to read more about its origins and almost forgotten meaning. Oman is famous for its elegant floral decoration, and this is something you will find on plait clips, too. [8]

The colours of the beads you will sometimes find strung in with these hair ornaments, also carries meaning. [9] Blue and red are the main colours to keep evil spirits away, coral is an often-used material as it brings wisdom and blessing, and of course is red of itself, too.

The athaqil may have had another capacity that has long since vanished, and that is the power of smell. They were stuffed to keep the silver from damaging [10]: as these ornaments are hollow, they might end up dented. But that stuffing sometimes was soaked in scented substances: as such, it would keep evil at a distance. [11]

And of course, all of these jingled! So you see how these hair ornaments are layered with meaning, and that meaning may even be present in different forms of jewellery. Let’s go into that next!

An Omani silver veil ornament called sils

Silver body chain manjad with a veil ornament attached

Braid ornaments as part of other Omani jewellery

An interesting use of pendants used as hair jewellery or veil jewellery is their attachment to the body chain known as manjad. This is a lengthy, silver chain that was worn across the body, from the shoulder to opposite hip. At its end, so dangling on or just above the hip, is a pendant as counterweight: it pulls the chain down and keeps it in place.

And that pendant is often one of the pendants you would wear in your hair, or on your veil. See an example in the gallery above where a veil ornament called sils has been attached to the chain. They also exist with a single athgul attached to the chain [12]

Now the thing is that this body chain was worn beneath the clothes. Its upper part was partly visible as necklines used to be much lower [13], but the lower part with the added hair ornament would be invisible. It was only worn by married women, and most authors suspect that it may have something to do with fertility. [14]

They did not note the recurring addition of hair ornaments, though, but I think this reinforces the suggestion of this chain as an amulet.

A selection of Omani silver hair ornaments

The afterlife of Omani silver braid ornaments

Like everywhere in the world, traditional dress and jewellery change over time. In Oman, significant changes in dress and jewellery appeared around the 1970s. Hair jewellery such as the athaqil and the halqa were no longer worn in the hair. Instead, they were repurposed into jewellery that could still be worn.

The hair clips in particular are very often repurposed into pendants. An example is in the gallery above: click to enlarge the photo. The halqa on the upper left has been reworked into a necklace. It continues to be a beautiful piece of adornment, but in a different way.

The athaqil, too, were repurposed. You may find them as pendants on a necklace, a practice noted in 2000. [15]

Omani silver braid ornaments: a living heritage

These braid ornaments formed an important part of the distinction between girls and married woman, as outlined in this article on the many roles ethnic jewellery can have. Today, they are much sought-after collectable items. Many expats who lived in Oman during the 70s and 80s brought these braid ornaments home with them: the set of athaqil I showed you in this post, belonged to Shirley Black-Temple. Ornaments like these continue to be worn on national holidays and festive occasions, and are used in new designs by Omani silversmiths and designers. They are pieces with a long history, ready for a long future.

—

More posts on jewellery, cultures and people? Browse them all here!

Join the Jewellery List and receive new articles, jewellery news and more in your inbox!

—

References

[1] A. Forster 2000. Disappearing Treasures of Oman, p. 66; R. Hawley 1978. Omani Silver, a book without page numbering (why, publisher, why??), but this on the page that starts the section on Hair Decorations. She adds that these were worn in places such as Bahla and Jabrin. J.S. Rahab 1997. Silver Jewellery of Oman, p. 24 also mentions Bahla and Jabrin, but it’s not clear if this is her own observation or that she is citing Hawley.

[2] A. Forster 2000. Disappearing Treasures of Oman, p. 66; M. Morris & P. Shelton 1997. Oman Adorned. A Portrait in Silver, p. 129 for a photo.

[3] M. Morris & P. Shelton 1997. Oman Adorned. A Portrait in Silver, p. 234.

[4] M. Morris & P. Shelton 1997. Oman Adorned. A Portrait in Silver, p. 312-313.

[5] M. Morris & P. Shelton 1997. Oman Adorned. A Portrait in Silver, p. 234.

[6] R. Hawley 1978. Omani Silver. This is on the second-last page.

[7] See an example in the British Museum collection here.

[8] See an example in P. Hoesli 2023, Shine & Mystery. The Splendour and Power of Oriental Jewellery, p. 132.

[9] See my book Desert Silver or the Amulets-course for an introduction of colours and materials as amulets.

[10] M. Morris & P. Shelton 1997. Oman Adorned. A Portrait in Silver, p. 234.

[11] A. Forster 2000. Disappearing Treasures of Oman, p. 67. See my book Silver & Frankincense or the Scents of the Middle East-course for more about this practice.

[12] J.S. Rahab 1997. Silver Jewellery of Oman, p. 34 for an example with an athgul.

[13] M. Morris & P. Shelton 1997. Oman Adorned. A Portrait in Silver, p. 263.

[14] R. Hawley 1978, Omani Silver. Again, as this book has no page numbering, I can only tell you it’s on the page that starts the section on Dhofari Silver, near the end of the book. M. Morris & P. Shelton 1997. Oman Adorned. A Portrait in Silver, p. 264. A. Forster 2000. Disappearing Treasures of Oman, p. 92.

[15] A. Forster 2000. Disappearing Treasures of Oman, p. 67.

Would you like to quote this article? Please do! Here’s how:

Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only.

« Older Entries

Next Entries »