Amazigh tattoos in Morocco: symbols, life and identity

Amazigh tattoos in Morocco: symbols, life and identity

by | Cultures & People

Identity and future

Amazigh tattoos

Published July 3, 2025

Have you ever wondered how identity isn’t just expressed in words, but also lives in daily gestures, and is inscribed on skin? Among Amazigh women in Morocco, traditional tattoos are not mere decoration but a living visual language. Each mark—from spirals to crescents—speaks of resilience, protection, fertility, and the cycles of time. So, in this blog, I’d like to explore the world of permanent Amazigh tattoos, focusing on Morocco.

Amazigh tattoos and their meaning

What is the meaning behind Amazigh tattoos? Like I said, permanent Amazigh tattoos are far more than mere embellishments; you could say that they are a visual language. That language expresses the world of women, and what mattered most to them. You will find references to protection from evil [1], to healing and beauty [2], but also to fertility and family [3] – a theme often found in women’s lives throughout the region, as you will find in several other articles on this blog!

See how that works in an Omani pendant here

See how mermaids are feared because of that here

And there is more that relates to their everyday world: symbols such as the crescent moon, spirals and circles acknowledge the cycles of time [4], similar to the meaning of crescents and spirals in jewellery, as I explore in this blog here.

Vintage photo of an Amazigh woman with abundant jewellery and facial tattoos on her cheeks. This photo is part of a blog article on Amazigh tattoos on the Bedouin Silver Blog.

Amazigh tattoos and the stages of life

The thing with tattoos is that they not just carry symbolism, but they are active agents themselves. They are connected to the stages of life and the social roles a person moved through, especially for women. From childhood into adulthood, Amazigh women’s body art marked key transitions. The first facial tattoo, known as “siyala” – a vertical line from the lower lip to the chin – was commonly applied at the onset of menstruation, symbolizing the transition into womanhood. [5] These marks were more than personal adornment: they communicated that a young woman was now part of a different social category, with new responsibilities and expectations.

Marriage was often accompanied by additional Amazigh tattoo traditions. Designs on the chin, forehead, or hands could mark fertility, family bonds, and readiness for motherhood. You could say that tattoos served almost like a visible record of biography.

For example, a square could be added to the skin after marriage to symbolize a new home [6]. For widows, there was even a tattoo extending from ear to ear, symbolizing their deceased husband’s beard [7].

And tattoos displayed tribal allegiances, making it clear to anyone which tribe the wearer belonged to.

These patterns and their meaning vary from region to region, from tribe to tribe, and throughout time: what carries meaning in one time and place, may be simply a pretty decoration in another.

Amazigh tattooing as a process

You could say that the process of getting such a tattoo was a ritual in itself, helping the wearer with that transition into the next stage of life. The tattooing process was typically carried out by a middle-aged woman from the wearer’s community [8]. These sessions were not merely transactional; they created a form of time used for exchanging advice and news, but also to talk about the upcoming changes in the life of the person being tattooed.

This would be a moment for the person being tattooed and her immediate family to gather and talk about shared experiences and offering advice for this new stage of life.

Why are Amazigh tattoos disappearing?

Like the use of silver jewellery, the tradition of Amazigh tattooing has significantly declined in recent decades. Why is that? There are several factors at play here.

Like in many areas of North Africa and Southwest Asia, the rise of Islamism after the 1970s has been a major factor in the decline of tattooing. Tattooing is considered a sin, as it alters what God has created. With more and more people adopting this viewpoint, carrying tattoos was frowned upon, and the practice started to disappear as a result of social pressure.

Combined with that development, tattoos also began to be regarded as old-fashioned and backward. [9]

See more on henna art as World Heritage here!

How are Amazigh tattoos revived?

Despite this decline, notably within the Amazigh diaspora there are to revitalize the tradition. There are many fabulous projects like the Timazighin-initiative by Raissa Lei, which aims to to connect the new generation with the traditions embodied by their grandmothers through jewellery, dress and the wearing of tattoos. These are temporary, but serve let the wearer experience what it is like to appear in her full ancestral regalia.[10]

These revival efforts aim to make the “invisible more visible” by celebrating Amazigh identity and history through art. A spectacular example was the 2025 Awad Summit in Paris.

Amazigh scholars, such as Malika Ouacha, do raise awareness against an Orientalist glorification of Amazigh traditions, and wanting to read ‘meaning’ into everything: she notes that seeking deep meanings for Amazigh tattoos might be misplaced, as many Amazigh women simply found them beautiful, or used patterns from crafts like weaving as practical memory aids [11]. Especially among a Western audience, the need to clarify patterns is high: I’m often baffled to read what made-up explanations of meaning people attribute to lines and patterns in jewellery, and for tattoos it is no different – it’s important to realise that sometimes, a design is just chosen because the wearer liked its form or shape. Meaning, form and even size of patterns change and evolve constantly: body aesthetic is a living heritage.

Empowering women: Amazigh tattoos as cultural identity

For Amazigh women, dress, facial tattoos, and jewellery collectively form a living representation of their cultural identity and their history. That identity is also present in the patterns in carpets, pottery, dress, and the decoration of houses: they are all rooted in the same North African heritage.

By reclaiming and safeguarding these traditions, Amazigh women transform their crafts into a source of economic empowerment through initiatives like cooperatives and other ways to create an income [12].

That is yet a new layer of meaning to an ancient tradition, and one that will carry body aesthetic into the future!

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References

[1] H. Mesouani 2019. Inked Bodies, Blank Pages: A Study of Amazigh Tattooing. MA-thesis, Illinois State University, p. 34.

[2] Mesouani, 34.

[3] Mesouani, 36.

[4] https://www.lilithmag.nl/blog/2021/6/4/ade-traditie-en-schoonheid-van-amazigh-gezichtstatoeages-uitgelegd.

[5] https://www.lilithmag.nl/blog/2021/6/4/ade-traditie-en-schoonheid-van-amazigh-gezichtstatoeages-uitgelegd.

[6] Mesouani, 38.

[7] https://amazightimes.nl/de-verdwijnende-amazigh-traditie-van-gezichts-en-lichaams-tattoos/

[8] https://amazightimes.nl/de-verdwijnende-amazigh-traditie-van-gezichts-en-lichaams-tattoos/

[9] B. Laghssais 2023. Amazigh Feminism Narratives: Aspirations, Agency, and Empowerment of Amazigh Women in the Southeast of Morocco, PhD-thesis, Universitat Jaume I, p. 345 – 346. Download the full thesis here for free (yay for open access!)

[10] See more on Timazighin here!

[11] https://www.lilithmag.nl/blog/2021/6/4/ade-traditie-en-schoonheid-van-amazigh-gezichtstatoeages-uitgelegd

[12] Laghssais, p. 358 – 405.

See other sources here:

History of Amazigh tattoos

https://www.newarab.com/features/amazigh-tattoos-are-fading-it-too-late-revive-them

The Bedouin Silver blog gives credit where credit is due! Transparent referencing and citing sources helps us all grow. Would you like to do the same and quote this article? Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

Amazigh fibulas of North Africa

Amazigh fibulas of North Africa

by | Objects

Dress and jewellery

Amazigh fibulas of North Africa: jewellery and identity

Published June 24, 2025

It’s the most iconic piece of Amazigh jewellery in North Africa: the fibula or clothing fastener. From the Atlantic coast of Morocco to the oases of Libya, Amazigh fibulas are both functional and highly symbolic. What is more, they reflect regional identities, social structures, and even showcase connections between landscape, dress, and daily life. So, let’s have a look at these beautiful objects of adornment!

What are Amazigh fibulas? Use, names & regional styles

What are Amazigh fibulas used for? Fibulas basically serve as fasteners. You’ll find them used on a variety of garments, including outer wraps, shawls, and head coverings. Their forms vary by region and community, ranging from simple functional items to more elaborately worked items that may also carry symbolic meaning.

While you may find them repurposed into pendants, that is not how they were used originally: they really are pins!

That capacity of joining two things together is also why there is also a lot of informal ritual involving fibulas: see more about that here!

A silver and enamel fibula from the Tiznit region, Morocco
A selection of beautiful silver fibulas from the Maghreb, against a brilliant blue background.

What is the correct term for Amazigh fibulas?

The term fibula is obviously not local; it comes from Latin, where it referred broadly to a clasp or brooch used to fasten clothing. The use of garment pins dates back much earlier, though – examples made from metal and bone have been found in Bronze Age contexts across Europe, the Mediterranean, and North Africa.

The specific form most common in North Africa today, the rotating ring-and-pin mechanism, is associated with Roman innovations in clothing fasteners. These Roman-era brooches, widely distributed across the empire, introduced a functional design that remained in use and was adapted across different cultures over time.

While fibula is the standard term used in archaeological and art historical literature, the objects themselves are known by a range of local names in Amazigh communities. In Morocco, they are referred to as tizerzai or tisernas; in Algeria, terms such as adwir or tabzimt are used; and in Tunisia and Libya, they are commonly known as khlel. These vernacular terms reflect linguistic diversity, but also a regional variation in design and use.

Anatomy of a fibula: ring, pin, head, and variation

The most common type of fibula found in North Africa is based on the penannular brooch design. That is a ring that is incomplete or open at one point. A typical fibula consists of three main components:

1. The head: a terminal or decorative element at the end of the pin;

2. The ring: a circular or penannular ring;

3. The pin itself.

These elements are visible in the illustration above.

The large crescent-shaped fibulas of Libya and Tunisia follow the same design, but have no head: in these types, the ring is aggrandized to the point where it also becomes the eye-catcher.

How do you actually fasten a fibula…?

That’s a question I get asked a lot – so, here is how! To fasten a garment, the pin is pushed through two the layers of fabric that you’ll want to secure together. Push the pin through and bring it back to the front by perforating the fabrics again: by pushing it through and through, you’ll end up with the head of the pin and its lower half visible on the outside of your garment. Once in place, rotate the ring so that the pin lies across the gap in the ring. Push the pin through the gap, and twist the ring so the opening moves away from the pin itself. The tension between the ring and the fabric holds the pin securely, preventing it from slipping out. This design allows the fibula to act as both a clasp and a visual feature of the garment.

Here is a quick video showing you how it’s done! (click this link, and then scroll down to the bottom of the page)

Spendid silver fibula set from Algeria

Amazigh fibulas and dress

Obviously, fibulas are integrated with the textiles they secure. That in turn tells you a lot about those textiles just by looking at the pins themselves. Heavier, more substantial fibulas are used with robust fabrics, while lighter versions suggest finer or differently structured cloth.

The outer garments they secure are wraps: garments that envelop the body and shoulders. In winter, these would be heavy, wool wraps, and in summer they might be lighter fabrics.

You will notice that the heads of the fibulas are the heaviest part of the piece. That tells you where they would have been placed: not at the upper end, as you often see them in books, but at the lower end. The pins themselves stick out upwards, the head is pointed downwards. That is an important difference between theory and practice: fibulas are almost invariably depicted with their heads upwards and their pins downwards, but that is not how they would have been worn in real life!

How fibulas reflect Amazigh identity

Fibulas are part and parcel of the cultural practices of Amazigh communities. They are not simply adornments, but part of a broader visual and symbolic language that links body, clothing, architecture, and environment. And you know that is how I love to study jewellery: in its cultural context!

Because this allows us to understand how material culture communicates identity, memory, and place, rather than just admiring them as beautiful objects in a showcase.

This interconnectedness is of course very evident in recurring patterns and motifs. The same geometric forms found on fibulas frequently appear on carpets, blankets, pottery, and woodwork, suggesting a shared visual vocabulary across media.

But there is much more. Fibulas offer further insights into the world of their wearers, especially through the design of the pin head or terminal. This is the most visually prominent part of the fibula, and it often serves as a marker of regional or communal identity. Its shape and decoration vary by area, village, or group, allowing the piece to signal belonging and local affiliation.

These terminal forms often reference features from the wearer’s environment. They literally show us what that environment looked like, or what iys wearers considered important.

Some derive from animal forms, for example, the ram’s head motifs found in fibulas worn by the Ihahen of coastal Morocco, which may evoke associations with pastoral life. Others reflect built structures: domed tombs, arched doorways, or the stepped crenellations of kasbah walls.

These visual echoes suggest that fibulas do not only exist in relation to the body, or even just in relation to dress, but also participate in a wider cultural landscape – drawing meaning from the world around them and embedding that meaning into daily dress.

How fabulous is that, when your dress and jewellery fit into your surroundings…?

Amazigh fibulas today: living heritage & revival

Although Amazigh fibulas are no longer commonly worn in daily life, they still carry meaning. They are living heritage, and continue to be produced for ceremonial use, like local festivals, as well as for tourist markets. The fibula itself appears on beauty products, metalwork, and doors. It has grown into a symbol of Amazigh identity, notably in the diaspora – Amazigh fibulas of North Africa are still deeply meaningful and continue to evolve.

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References

Read more on fibulas and their cultural meaning here (not exhaustive, there is much more out there!):

Benfoughal, T. 1997. Bijoux et Bijoutiers de l’ Aurès. CNRS Editions, Paris

Cheylan, G. (ed.) 2007. Coutumes et décors de Tunisie. Ceres Éditions, Tunis

Eudel, P. 1906. Dictionnaire des Bijoux d’Afrique du Nord. Maroc, Algérie, Tunisie, Tripolitaine. Ernest Léroux, Paris

Gargouri-Sethom, S. & J. Pérez 2005. Les Bijoux de Tunisie. Dunes Editions, Tunis El Hafsia

Ghellali, H. 2024. Jewellery and Adornment of Libya. Blikveld Uitgevers Publishers, Zandvoort

Tamzali, W. 1984. Abzim. Parures et Bijoux des femmes d’Algérie. Dessain et Tolra, Entreprise algérienne de presse, Algers

The Bedouin Silver blog gives credit where credit is due! Transparent referencing and citing sources helps us all grow. Would you like to do the same and quote this article? Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

Joyeria Amazig/Amazigh Jewelry

Joyeria Amazig/Amazigh Jewelry

by | Cultures & People, Reviews

A private jewellery collection

Joyería Amazig/Amazigh jewellery

Published on November 3, 2024

Another private collection that sees the light of day: in an exhibition and a catalogue! The collection of Amazigh jewellery collected by Spanish ambassador Jorge Dezcallar de Mazarredo has been the focus of an exhibition in Granada, and its accompanying catalogue Joyería Amazig presents an overview of the collection.

Amazigh jewellery: neighbours

With the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa being neighbours, separated only by the street of Gibraltar, both geographical realms share a history. Not only of trade, but of mutual colonisation; the Amazigh kingdoms conquered the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century, and would control it until the 15th century, and in Spain held two ‘protectorates’ in Morocco from 1912 to 1952 amidst the French colonisation of the Maghreb.

It is this shared history that the exhibition aims to emphasise with an exhibition on Amazigh jewellery: ‘to understand more about the cultural wealth of the past, and to build bridges towards a future based on respect for and appreciation of diversity’ [p. 11] [1]

Amazigh jewellery: the book

This publication is bilingual in Spanish and English: an excellent choice, as by using two of the major world languages, the collection may reach a wide audience. The book is divided into two main parts. First, an introductory part highlights the cultural background of Amazigh jewellery. This is followed by the second part, which is the catalogue itself.

The introductory part starts with two essays on the cultural history of the Amazigh, and places these in local context in an essay on the Amazigh in Granada. Given that the exhibition was held in Granada, this chapter truly connects two worlds. The jewellery is then explored by Cynthia J. Becker. Her article uses the collection as a starting point and merges it with her in-depth description of jewellery makers and wearers. I loved how she both includes the broad strokes of history as well as significant local details to place this jewellery collection in its cultural context.

Finally, the ambassador himself details how both his collection and his appreciation for jewellery grew – as you know, it is important to get some idea of the circumstances of collecting and the personal preferences of the collector. This helps understand the collection itself and to compare it with others: each collector holds one piece of the total puzzle, and so having a chapter on the collection history is most valuable. In this case, the starting point was his own culture: the presence of Spanish coins in clothing pins.

The collection: a mixture of pieces

In this case, the collection embraces mostly relatable pieces. Where you will often find catalogues with high-end, exceptional pieces (because that is what the collector is aiming for, and which leave out the more common pieces), these pages reflect the transitional stages of jewellery: the jewellery available in the market today, and their changing interpretations.

Both older and newer jewellery sit side by side with restrung or altered pieces, like the Draa temporal ornament reworked into a pendant [p. 222]. There are also several chimeras or composite pieces in the collection, like the diadem shown on p. 200: this has been constructed of two different bands placed on top of each other, crowned with an upside-down positioned fibula. [2] This has been constructed for the market for cultural outsiders: it would not have been worn as such by the Amazigh community.

That is also the case with the multi-strand necklaces shown on pp 244-245: these are relatively recent compositions, and not part of traditional dress. [3] Creations like these showcase the evolving nature of jewellery from an economical point of view: a way to make a living. Those alterations come in various forms, and are not automatically a bad thing: see how that works and 5 practical tips on how to spot alterations here.

However, the catalogue does not differentiate between these newer and older pieces, and that is a serious drawback. None of the captions gives a date for the piece shown: the publication definitely does not claim all pieces are indeed old, but does not point out when they are younger, either. There are also no reflections on cultural authenticity, which in several cases might have helped to avoid misunderstandings.

A wide variety of jewellery

Personally, I liked the overview of fibulas that have coins as their main decorative element. Coin jewellery may tell us a lot about its wearers, as I describe here.  7 pages with a series of fibulas carrying Spanish coins present a selection that you will not find as easily elsewhere – here, the focus of the collector brings us another angle through which to study jewellery. The drawback is that of all objects in the catalogue, these lack a proper description. For a Spanish person, these coins are probably easily recognisable and datable, but I’ll need to spend a little more time comparing the images to Spanish coinage through the centuries.

The variety of the collection is wide: I loved the variety in fabric headbands with all sorts of decoration stitched on (although I’m not entirely sure all of them are in authentic configuration), you’ll find several examples of large fibula sets, but also a selection of tiny amulets…there are pieces from Mauritania to Libya and I spent a good time going over all of them.

A noteworthy point of the book is that it zooms out to the transregional elements of Amazigh jewellery on occasion. A temporal pendant from Libya for example is compared to both Moroccan and Tunisian examples [p. 237, only in text, not with images], and while all three are different, their common ancestry is not often addressed directly, so I liked that this was touched upon, however briefly.

Joyería Amazig

The focus of this book is, understandably given the position of the collector, on Morocco, but incidentally you will find pieces from Algeria, Tunisia and Libya as well. It is abundantly illustrated: landscapes, rock art, architecture, paintings and photos of people allow you to appreciate the context of the jewellery.

That being said, there is no reflection on the nature of some of these images: colonial postcards and Orientalising paintings are included without further discussion.Some of these have been made under duress, and not all of them are to be considered reliable sources: personally, I feel that the images chosen for a book should be considered with as much care as the text itself.

The artists’ drawings of jewellery throughout the book are simply beautiful: the drawing on the cover is just one example (although those touches of verdigris are a bit unsettling on such a beautiful piece!) There are many more, and I liked their dreamy rendering of beautiful jewels.

The introductory chapters are well written, and contain a wealth of knowledge about Amazigh history and culture, which is so important when looking at jewellery in its context. The book reflects the changing market for jewellery, and pays attention to the more modest pieces. It is these ‘humbler’ items that stand to disappear first, because collectors do not always value these: see the 4 filters of collecting explained here.

I also appreciated that the catalogue part dedicates a single page to every item, allowing you to see it in full. Each piece of jewellery is presented against a black or cream-coloured background, so they really stand out.

However, caution is needed if you’d want to use this as a reference book: like I said, the captions do not clarify the age of the pieces and also do not address the possibility of pieces being composed and rearranged from older elements. When researching exact details of individual pieces, you’ll need to cross-check information in this book with other sources.

Joyería Amazig is an overview of a personal collection. The chapters on its cultural context in the first part of the book add value; the catalogue needs to be considered with caution.

More about Joyería Amazig

Joyería Amazig: identidad de los pueblos beréberes – Amazigh jewelry: identity of the Berber Peoples

Various authors, 2024. 348 pages, full colour, bilingual in Spanish/English

Published by El legado andalusí.

Available with the publisher: to order, fill out the email form under ‘solicitar información’ and the publisher will get back to you with a quote for shipping costs. (the field ‘correo electronico’ is where you leave your email address)

I received the book digitally as review copy. In all transparency: I received a low resolution pdf to review, and have not seen the printed book itself. I can’t tell you anything about the technical execution of the book, the quality of the images, or show you what it looks like inside – just so you know!

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References

[1] I think it’s page 11, the introductory part of the book has no page numbering.

[2] Probably a belt element as shown in Benfoughal, T. 1997, Bijoux et Bijoutiers de l’Aures, p. 162-164, combined with a diadem and the body of a fibula.

[3] As discussed by Alaa Eddine Sagid, curator of the MAP Marrakech, on Facebook-group Ethnic Jewels Community, May 13, 2021.

The Bedouin Silver blog gives credit where credit is due! Transparent referencing and citing sources helps us all grow. Would you like to do the same and quote this article? Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on the jewellery of the Egyptian zar-ritual. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only.

MODA Moroccan Fashion Statements

MODA Moroccan Fashion Statements

by | Museums & Exhibitions

Fashion and design from morocco

MODA: Moroccan Fashion Statements

Published October 10, 2024

Every now and then I come across an exhibition that really leaves me inspired, so imagine my joy when I visited the huge exhibition on Moroccan fashion in Utrecht: MODA – Moroccan fashion statements. Not just because I may have thought ‘I would totally love to wear this’ a little too often, but because this was just immersed with meaning expressed in material form. As usual, click on any of the images below to enlarge them!

MODA: not just any fashion exhibition

Before I take you through a few of my personal highlights, a few general observations. This is an incredibly varied exhibition, in which you will find high couture and street art, luxurious materials and stray finds, innovative and familiar shapes. As the curatorial team (Ninke Bloemberg, curator and iniator of this exhibition, and Zineb Seghrouchni of DAR Cultural Agency) pointed out, this exhibition is not based on books or other forms of debate on what fashion is.

This selection is rooted in people, in everyday life, in today’s culture. It does not aim to be an overview of everything Morocco has to offer in terms of fashion (because you’d need a venue even larger than this), but a celebration of today’s up-and-coming designers alongside fashion icons. It’s like a snapshot of what inspires Moroccan designers today, and a glimpse into the history of fashion. It also illustrates how there is no such thing as monolithic ‘Moroccan’ fashion – the diversity of styles and influences is wide.

Moroccan fashion: today’s world

The first creation I saw, serves as a perfect example. Two designs by Maison Sara Chraïbi: one a wide cloak, the other a flapper-style dress, both from her 2024 Spring-Summer collection. Both carry an image of view into a mosque, whose arches beautifully blend with the lines of the design.

It is not any mosque, however: this is the 12th century Tinmal Mosque, in the High Atlas mountain range. During the devastating earthquake of 2023, it was substantially damaged. Here, its arches are embellished with sparkling gold beads. I imagined how sewing these on, one by one, is almost an act of restoring and protecting, and how wearing it fuses a person and their heritage together. It both brings inner life to the architecture, and embodies a promise to the future.

There is such strength and resilience, but also hope and joy in these first two pieces, that I totally get why these are the show-starters.

Contemporary issues, vintage to ancient design

The design immediately next to it caught my eye, too: a hooded cloak, called silham, covered in embroidered eyes, by Maison ARTC. The cloak itself is vintage, the embroidery has been added. The poem that goes with it, speaks volumes:

I see the change,
The love,
The anger,
The culture,
The hope,
The lack of justice,
The art,
The pain,
The people,
The community,
The world,
Myself,
Don’t forget to witness.

I found the use of eyes in this context extremely powerful: not only do they represent seeing and witnessing, but they also shield the wearer – the power of the eye in deflecting evil is ancient, and the use of sparkling sequins adds to that averting evil. The colour of this cloak, that of henna, adds to that protective and blessing capacity. Seeing and shielding in one garment: it’s this layered meaning that I found to be present throughout the exhibition.

MODA: artists, artisans and everyday life

The exhibition breathes cultural roots and almost effortlessly connects these with new designs and forms. Like the opera cloak of Dior’s 2020 Cruise Collection. Made of wool, dyed with henna, it clearly echoed the traditional henna cloth of southern Morocco. That relation between artists and artisans is also explored in the exhibition. There is a stunning dress where the loom is part of its design by Said Mahrouf, and the same exhibition room shows videos of artisans at work. Here, you’ll also find a wonderful selection of antique Moroccan jewellery on loan from the National Jewellery Museum in Rabat.

What absolutely made my head spin was the attention to hairstyles. Ilham Mestour, a celebrated hairstylist, created several hair designs based on the traditional hairdos of Amazigh women. One of them looked like it was created with actual scented paste, so I asked Zineb Seghrouchni of DAR Cultural Agency, one of the curators, about this piece in particular.

She told me that this was made with ghasoul, and that it smelled wonderful when they took it out of its container to install in the room – I can imagine! Including hair in an exhibition on fashion makes total sense: it is through hairstyles that tribal identities are expressed, but also how a form of private space and time is created. Creating these elaborate hairstyles is much more than just a form of outward appearance: you could say it is the end result of valuable time spent together, stories shared and knowledge transmitted. And that very much belongs in an exhibition on fashion.

MODA: an multi-faceted, rich exhibition

There is much more in this exhibition: from family photos to playful designs, from personal inspiration to global shows. And while I focus, due to the nature of my work I guess, on the more traditional elements that informed the designs, either implicitly or explicitly, that only is just one element of the creations on show. You will see opinions on how we treat our planet, mass-production and pollution, fast consumerism and prejudice.

There is also continuous attention for fashion in art, from street photography to photos enhanced with embroidery (which reminded me a lot of the Imaginarium-project in its treatment of printed matter), video art, a contemplative space to immerse oneself in publications and to meet with other visitors, and a myriad of details that require more than 1 visit – at least, for me!

It is the first time that such a large exhibition on Moroccan fashion has been organised in The Netherlands, and I hope this will be the start of many more: I highly recommend to visit if you have the chance!

MODA. Moroccan Fashion Statements in Centraal Museum Utrecht, Oct 3rd 2024 – March 2, 2025.

Co-curated by Ninke Bloemberg of Centraal Museum and Zineb Seghrouchni of DAR Cultural Agency

I was invited to the press preview and received a copy of the catalogue as a PR-invite.

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The Bedouin Silver blog gives credit where credit is due! Transparent referencing and citing sources helps us all grow. Would you like to do the same and quote this article? Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

Scented paste jewellery of North Africa

Scented paste jewellery of North Africa

by | Objects

Skhab beads

Scented paste jewellery of North Africa

Updated November 25, 2024

Beads made of scented paste—known in the Maghreb as skhab—are among the most evocative items of personal adornment in North Africa. In this blog post I explore scented‑paste jewellery from Tunisia and Algeria, examining how fragrance, craft and cultural meaning come together in these unique beads. Rather than a simple inventory of pieces, we’ll look at their making, their wearing, and their place in Maghrebi social life.

Wearing scent: origins and cultural context in the Maghreb

Why wear scented jewellery in the first place? For this, we need to look at the role fragrance plays culturally. Fragrance in North Africa is much more than just spritzing on a perfume.

In informal religion, scent was considered powerful as an amulet. Incense in general was believed to keep malevolent spirits at a distance. [1] And because agreeable scents were seen as a manifestation of benign beings, wearing fragrance was a powerful way of keeping evil away.

The use of scent and personal grooming falls in the category of ‘recommended’ behaviour for Muslims, although its application varies per branch of Islam. Several hadīth underline the beneficial effects of perfume, relating how the Prophet also scented his clothing by fumigation and never refused perfumes. [2]

On important religious occasions, personal cleanliness was mandatory. This extended not only to the body, but also to clothing worn: an example from early 20th century Morocco observes that clothing was perfumed with rosewater and orange blossom water or fumigated with incense. [3]

Photocollage showing antique photo of a Tunisian woman and scented herbs, woods and flowers
Necklace of scented beads from Tunisia, with gold beads.

Scented paste in the Maghreb: beads

In Tunisia and Algeria, and to a lesser extent in Morocco and Libya as well, scent was added to jewellery in a beautiful way. [4] Here, a scented paste is worked into beads, generally called skhab. [5]

The beads were produced at home, but you could also buy them in specialized ateliers in the sūqs. In home production, recipes were handed down from mother to daughter and adapted to personal tastes. [6] As a result, the fragrance of these beads would be the signature scent of the wearer and her family.

Collage of a vintage photo of an Algerian lady mixing herbs against a background of colourful flowers and herbs.

The craft of skhab: ingredients

What did these beads smell like…? The bouquet itself was created by carefully selecting and combining aromatic ingredients. Cedarwood, sandalwood and ‘ūd created warm woody undertones. Cloves, saffron, rosemary and thyme were among the herbs used to add a spicy layer, while roses, preferably the strong scenting Rosa damascena, jasmine, lavender and patchouli added floral notes.

All of these were dried and pulverized. Pulverizing itself would take up a significant amount of time, as the powder had to be as finely ground as possible.

This was before the blender existed: everything had to be ground by hand! You’d want the fragrant powder to be as fine as possible: any larger lumps would present a problem in the polishing of the beads, later in the process.

So, after much grinding and regrinding, the fragrant powder was then slowly mixed with rosewater or orange blossom water.

When all of the water was absorbed, and this could take up to a week (!) it would be ground again. That procedure was repeated until a paste was created. [7]

Finally, a binding agent such as odoriferous resin, date paste or Arabic gum was added. You would boil the mixture slowly on a low fire, until it turned into a smooth paste.

Scented paste of North Africa: bead-making

While the paste was still warm, and gave off its sumptuous scent, women would start shaping the beads. The simplest beads were spherical, but experienced hands created a variety of shapes like hearts, fish, stars, crescents and flowers. Their size varied from tiny beads to quite sizable examples.

All these beads would be spread out on a tray and put somewhere to rest and dry, like in the window sill or on a table. Never in direct sunlight though: that would cause them to dry too fast and they would break.

When the beads had dried for a few days, they were still soft enough to be perforated, yet solid enough to keep their shape and not fall apart during the process.

After a month, the beads would be polished smooth and strung with a variety of other beads such as glass, coral, amber and silver into necklaces, or worn as earrings, hair ornaments and brooches. [8]

Creating these beads was an entirely female affair. It also served as introduction into a woman’s world for the daughters of the family: while wearing these beads was considered inappropriate for girls, the long days spent creating them was a time for chatting, gossiping and learning about the intimacies of married life.

Scented paste in adornment: hairstyles and bracelet lining

Scented paste was not only used for beads! Another practical way of applying it is on the inside of bracelets. The movements of the bracelet over the warm skin in would release the fragrance.

An additional benefit was that the thick layer of paste smoothed out any rough edges and prevented the skin from getting pinched between several heavy bracelets.

Remnants of this paste may sometimes still be visible on the inside of a bracelet: as this is not dirt, but an essential part of its life, I recommend checking for it before you start cleaning jewellery: see more about that here.

Scented paste was also worked into hairstyles, notably in Morocco: here, too, remnants of scented paste can still be found on ornaments worn in the hair. The gallery above shows such an example: click to enlarge the image, and see how the patches of ‘dirt’ may actually be leftovers from something that once smelled divine!

Social and ritual significance of scented paste beads: weddings and women

In Tunisia and Algeria, the scented beads were worn by a bride for the first time: their use is specifically for married women. They reflect the intimacy of married life and carry a strong connotation of sensuality.

The importance of these is well explained by an Algerian woman: ‘A woman that does not possess a necklace of scented beads, is not a woman’ – unmarried girls did not wear fragrant beads, as their sensual capacities were inappropriate for their social position. [9]

That these necklaces were more than just ornaments, is illustrated by the cultural restrictions surrounding their use. Algerian women did not wear their scented bead necklaces when their husband was away; when he was absent for a longer period of time, the necklaces were stored in a box.[10]

Even just showing them to female friends was done very privately: you would not want another man accidentally to catch a whiff of their scent. [11]

Sumptuous scented beads witha gold meskia perfume pendant
A beautiful gold meskia from Tunisia.

Scented paste beads today: tradition, production and trade

Today, the large necklaces with scented paste are still a very important part of weddings in the Maghreb. Scented beads are now mainly produced by specialized ateliers in the sūqs.[12] These ateliers run a good business, as procuring these beads is a necessity for engagement and wedding festivities. You’ll find them strung with lavish perfume containers known as meskia: see more about these delicious jewels here.

Wearing scented beads is an old tradition that is still in use, and that is much more than just aesthetics: perfume jewellery is a profound cultural expression.

More about the many uses of scent, wearing fragrant jewels and the art of incense fumigation is in the e-course Scents of the Middle East: a full exploration of the invisible side of adornment!

Collage of a smiling woman from Egypt, wearing gold earrings, with dewy rose petals, jasmine and lilies. A bright yellow text box reads 'Scents of the Middle East'

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Want to learn how fragrance plays a role in jewellery and adornment? My book Silver & Frankincense explores this in depth!

More posts on jewellery and amulets? Browse them all here!

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References

[1] Interestingly, in early Christianity the opposite was the case: incense was believed to attract demons. This stance towards incense was related to the Roman practice of burning incense to honour the gods and the emperor, and only changed centuries later in Late Antiquity. See Lallemand 2008.

[2] Kanafani 1983, pp. 293-294.

[3] Westermarck 1911, p. 131.

[4] Mershen 2009, p. 59; Zimmerle 2014, pp. 416-417; Becker 2000, p. 182.

[5] According to Eudel’s Dictionnaire des Bijoux, the name is particularly used in Algeria and Tunisia for scented beads; in other regions it generally indicates a necklace.

[6] Filali 2001; Benfoughal 1997, p. 91-92.

[7] Opper 2015, p. 22. The process could take up to 40 days. See these videos by Charlotte Dakin-Norris to make your own!

[8] Opper 2015, p. 22.

[9] Tamzali 1984, p. 41; Benfoughal 1997, p. 139. In Algeria’s Kabylia, however, girls would wear a necklace made of amber called lūban or ‘incense’. Although the necklace itself did not carry scent, the name hints at the stage in life preceding the one in which she soon would wear real scented jewellery. Eudel 1906 Dictionnaire des Bijoux, p. 121.

[10] Benfoughal 1997, p. 139.

[11] Benfoughal 1997, p. 142.

[12] Gargouri-Sethom & Perez 2005, p. 123-125.

The Bedouin Silver blog gives credit where credit is due! Transparent referencing and citing sources helps us all grow. Would you like to do the same and quote this article? Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

This blog is free: if you’d like to support independent research, please consider enrolling in a course or a jewellery talk. The proceeds directly fund my research work: thank you so much for your support!