Amazigh tattoos in Morocco: symbols, life and identity

Amazigh tattoos in Morocco: symbols, life and identity

by | Cultures & People

Identity and future

Amazigh tattoos

Published July 3, 2025

Have you ever wondered how identity isn’t just expressed in words, but also lives in daily gestures, and is inscribed on skin? Among Amazigh women in Morocco, traditional tattoos are not mere decoration but a living visual language. Each mark—from spirals to crescents—speaks of resilience, protection, fertility, and the cycles of time. So, in this blog, I’d like to explore the world of permanent Amazigh tattoos, focusing on Morocco.

Amazigh tattoos and their meaning

What is the meaning behind Amazigh tattoos? Like I said, permanent Amazigh tattoos are far more than mere embellishments; you could say that they are a visual language. That language expresses the world of women, and what mattered most to them. You will find references to protection from evil [1], to healing and beauty [2], but also to fertility and family [3] – a theme often found in women’s lives throughout the region, as you will find in several other articles on this blog!

See how that works in an Omani pendant here

See how mermaids are feared because of that here

And there is more that relates to their everyday world: symbols such as the crescent moon, spirals and circles acknowledge the cycles of time [4], similar to the meaning of crescents and spirals in jewellery, as I explore in this blog here.

Vintage photo of an Amazigh woman with abundant jewellery and facial tattoos on her cheeks. This photo is part of a blog article on Amazigh tattoos on the Bedouin Silver Blog.

Amazigh tattoos and the stages of life

The thing with tattoos is that they not just carry symbolism, but they are active agents themselves. They are connected to the stages of life and the social roles a person moved through, especially for women. From childhood into adulthood, Amazigh women’s body art marked key transitions. The first facial tattoo, known as “siyala” – a vertical line from the lower lip to the chin – was commonly applied at the onset of menstruation, symbolizing the transition into womanhood. [5] These marks were more than personal adornment: they communicated that a young woman was now part of a different social category, with new responsibilities and expectations.

Marriage was often accompanied by additional Amazigh tattoo traditions. Designs on the chin, forehead, or hands could mark fertility, family bonds, and readiness for motherhood. You could say that tattoos served almost like a visible record of biography.

For example, a square could be added to the skin after marriage to symbolize a new home [6]. For widows, there was even a tattoo extending from ear to ear, symbolizing their deceased husband’s beard [7].

And tattoos displayed tribal allegiances, making it clear to anyone which tribe the wearer belonged to.

These patterns and their meaning vary from region to region, from tribe to tribe, and throughout time: what carries meaning in one time and place, may be simply a pretty decoration in another.

Amazigh tattooing as a process

You could say that the process of getting such a tattoo was a ritual in itself, helping the wearer with that transition into the next stage of life. The tattooing process was typically carried out by a middle-aged woman from the wearer’s community [8]. These sessions were not merely transactional; they created a form of time used for exchanging advice and news, but also to talk about the upcoming changes in the life of the person being tattooed.

This would be a moment for the person being tattooed and her immediate family to gather and talk about shared experiences and offering advice for this new stage of life.

Why are Amazigh tattoos disappearing?

Like the use of silver jewellery, the tradition of Amazigh tattooing has significantly declined in recent decades. Why is that? There are several factors at play here.

Like in many areas of North Africa and Southwest Asia, the rise of Islamism after the 1970s has been a major factor in the decline of tattooing. Tattooing is considered a sin, as it alters what God has created. With more and more people adopting this viewpoint, carrying tattoos was frowned upon, and the practice started to disappear as a result of social pressure.

Combined with that development, tattoos also began to be regarded as old-fashioned and backward. [9]

See more on henna art as World Heritage here!

How are Amazigh tattoos revived?

Despite this decline, notably within the Amazigh diaspora there are to revitalize the tradition. There are many fabulous projects like the Timazighin-initiative by Raissa Lei, which aims to to connect the new generation with the traditions embodied by their grandmothers through jewellery, dress and the wearing of tattoos. These are temporary, but serve let the wearer experience what it is like to appear in her full ancestral regalia.[10]

These revival efforts aim to make the “invisible more visible” by celebrating Amazigh identity and history through art. A spectacular example was the 2025 Awad Summit in Paris.

Amazigh scholars, such as Malika Ouacha, do raise awareness against an Orientalist glorification of Amazigh traditions, and wanting to read ‘meaning’ into everything: she notes that seeking deep meanings for Amazigh tattoos might be misplaced, as many Amazigh women simply found them beautiful, or used patterns from crafts like weaving as practical memory aids [11]. Especially among a Western audience, the need to clarify patterns is high: I’m often baffled to read what made-up explanations of meaning people attribute to lines and patterns in jewellery, and for tattoos it is no different – it’s important to realise that sometimes, a design is just chosen because the wearer liked its form or shape. Meaning, form and even size of patterns change and evolve constantly: body aesthetic is a living heritage.

Empowering women: Amazigh tattoos as cultural identity

For Amazigh women, dress, facial tattoos, and jewellery collectively form a living representation of their cultural identity and their history. That identity is also present in the patterns in carpets, pottery, dress, and the decoration of houses: they are all rooted in the same North African heritage.

By reclaiming and safeguarding these traditions, Amazigh women transform their crafts into a source of economic empowerment through initiatives like cooperatives and other ways to create an income [12].

That is yet a new layer of meaning to an ancient tradition, and one that will carry body aesthetic into the future!

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References

[1] H. Mesouani 2019. Inked Bodies, Blank Pages: A Study of Amazigh Tattooing. MA-thesis, Illinois State University, p. 34.

[2] Mesouani, 34.

[3] Mesouani, 36.

[4] https://www.lilithmag.nl/blog/2021/6/4/ade-traditie-en-schoonheid-van-amazigh-gezichtstatoeages-uitgelegd.

[5] https://www.lilithmag.nl/blog/2021/6/4/ade-traditie-en-schoonheid-van-amazigh-gezichtstatoeages-uitgelegd.

[6] Mesouani, 38.

[7] https://amazightimes.nl/de-verdwijnende-amazigh-traditie-van-gezichts-en-lichaams-tattoos/

[8] https://amazightimes.nl/de-verdwijnende-amazigh-traditie-van-gezichts-en-lichaams-tattoos/

[9] B. Laghssais 2023. Amazigh Feminism Narratives: Aspirations, Agency, and Empowerment of Amazigh Women in the Southeast of Morocco, PhD-thesis, Universitat Jaume I, p. 345 – 346. Download the full thesis here for free (yay for open access!)

[10] See more on Timazighin here!

[11] https://www.lilithmag.nl/blog/2021/6/4/ade-traditie-en-schoonheid-van-amazigh-gezichtstatoeages-uitgelegd

[12] Laghssais, p. 358 – 405.

See other sources here:

History of Amazigh tattoos

https://www.newarab.com/features/amazigh-tattoos-are-fading-it-too-late-revive-them

The Bedouin Silver blog gives credit where credit is due! Transparent referencing and citing sources helps us all grow. Would you like to do the same and quote this article? Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

Ancient jewellery: Iraq

Ancient jewellery: Iraq

by | Ancient jewellery, Cultures & People

Jewellery history of Mesopotamia

Ancient jewellery from Iraq

Published March 9, 2025

When we talk about the beginnings of jewellery history, few places are as important as Iraq — ancient Mesopotamia. From the royal tombs of Ur, with their breathtaking hoards of gold, to the tiny glass beads produced in early workshops, the region offers a vivid picture of how people used jewellery to express power, belief, and identity.

These finds are not just beautiful ornaments. They reveal the skills of Mesopotamian craftsmen, the reach of early trade networks, and the ways jewellery was tied to life, death, and status. Looking at the jewellery of ancient Iraq means looking at some of the oldest traditions of adornment in the world — traditions that influenced cultures far beyond the Tigris and Euphrates.

This blog is part of my series on Ancient Jewellery, exploring how adornment shaped identity across the Middle East and Mediterranean. You can also read about jewellery from ancient Syria, ancient jewellery from Lebanon, and more to come.

Iraq’s early jewellery history: Mesopotamian gold, beads & trade

Iraq is home to the two rivers that provided the perfect circumstances for early civilization: the Tigris and the Euphrates. The ancient name ‘Mesopotamia’ refers to these two rivers, as it literally means ‘between rivers’.

The rivers provided not only fertile ground but also formed trade corridors with southern Anatolia as well as with the Indus Valley to the east. It is not surprising that these circumstances gave rise to some of the earliest cities and city-states.

In the north of Iraq, near current-day Mosul, Tepe Gawra was a site that has been inhabited from 5,000 BCE onwards until 1,500 BCE. It’s from this place that the earliest use of gold in Southwest Asia has been preserved: wire and beads form telling tales of both technological achievements and trade.

Tepe Gawra grew into one of the earliest industrial cities, bringing wealth to an upper layer of its inhabitants, and that shows in the burials of the late 4th millennium. Gold rosettes and beads, lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, and turquoise from Sinai all testify to the trade hub that Tepe Gawra was.

 

The gold of Ur & elite burials: jewellery significance in royal tombs

In the south of Iraq, the city of Ur was a major urban site in ancient Sumer. Its cemetery of thousands of burials, dating to around 2,500 BCE, is world famous. Only a few of these contained abundant riches, and thus were called ‘Royal Tombs’ by their excavator, Leonard Woolley.

Although some of the deceased were indeed of royal status, the majority were elite members, courtiers and attendants, buried together with their ruler.

The burials contained lavish jewellery sets in gold, carnelian and lapis lazuli, and it has been proposed that the jewellery items with which each individual was interred, were somehow linked to their status and position.

Certain jewellery items are only used for men, where others are mainly worn by women. A further differentiation may be seen between royal and priestly elite members. Jewellery here does not only communicate wealth, but also complex organizational structures.

Jewellery of Queen Puabi: power, ritual & female adornment

Probably the most well-known burial in Ur is that of Queen Puabi. She was buried with copious amounts of jewellery in gold, lapis lazuli and carnelian.

As the roof of her tomb had collapsed in the past, it has been difficult to reconstruct the jumble of beads and other ornaments into the objects we are familiar with today. Her spectacular jewellery is also significant for more than just status and power. Recent research by Kim Benzel has shown that it may very well also have been charged with ritual or magic power.

In Puabi’s jewellery, references to fertility are abundant. Vegetation and floral motifs abound, and what is more, the use of gold seems to be focusing on the upper part of the body: as if in death, she was a radiant goddess in an aura of vegetation.

Assyrian jewellery & ornament in northern Mesopotamia

In the north of Iraq, the kingdom of Assyria flourished. Here, cities like Nineveh and Nimrud bloomed. In Nimrud, ancient Qalhu, in particular, four rich tombs have been excavated at the end of the 20th century by the Iraqi Department of Antiquities.

Two queens were found buried together, Queen Yaba’, the wife of Tiglath-pileser III, and Queen Ataliya, who was married to Sargon II. From the excavation it became clear that the queens were dressed in fabrics that were embellished with countless gold ornaments shaped like stars, rosettes, wheels, discs, and triangles, along with jewellery like diadems, bracelets, anklets, rings and earrings.

The level of workmanship achieved is superb: the woven diadem of Queen Yaba’ is technically very difficult to create. The use of eye agates is one of the ancient precursors of eye beads as they are still used today.

Glass beads and trade: ancient Mesopotamia’s bead production 

Glass beads excavated outside of Mesopotamia, sometimes at a considerable distance, tells us more about the wide reach of the trade network.

The most faraway example is a tomb from the 5th to 3rd century BCE in the city of Huludao in China, where glass eye beads have been excavated that were produced in Mesopotamia in the Late Bronze Age, around 1,100 BCE. Clearly these beads have traveled quite a distance in the centuries after their creation, but also in the time of the Bronze Age itself trade routes reached far.

Glass beads excavated in Europe were found to have been produced in Mesopotamia.

Medieval jewellery and continuing traditions in Iraq

During the Middle Ages, the area that is now Iraq continued to flourish as a trade hub. Baghdad was the capital of the Islamic world for a considerable time, and it is during the Middle Ages that we see forms and styles take shape that continue to be used in jewellery. The seal pendant shown here dates from ca 600 to 1200, and inscribed stones like these are still much sought after today.

These international connections are still visible in the traditional jewellery of Iraq. The silver jewellery of the tribes inhabiting the thick marshes in the south of Iraq has its own distinct style, while in the north of Iraq, the ethnic minority known as the Assyrians still have their own jewellery styles. In the cities, Ottoman jewellery styles have found their way into the spectrum of adornment, such as the characteristic belt buckles. All in all, Iraq is home to some of the most stunning and significant pieces of human adornment and history.

Ancient jewellery of Iraq: a testimony to human achievements

The story of ancient jewellery in Iraq spans millennia, from the gold rosettes of Ur to the bead production at Tepe Gawra, and from Assyrian diadems to medieval workshops in Baghdad. Across this long history, jewellery was never just decoration: it was a marker of rank, a tool of ritual, and a product of far-reaching trade.

For us today, these pieces provide a bridge to the people of ancient Mesopotamia. They remind us that even in the earliest civilisations, jewellery was already bound up with identity, belief, and cultural meaning. Whether a necklace buried with a queen or a simple bead traded across empires, each object tells us that adornment has always been central to human life.

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References

This is an updated, adapted and expanded version of a blog I wrote earlier for the Zay Initiative.

Alarashi, H. 2016. Butterfly Beads in the Neolithic Near East: Evolution, Technology and Socio-cultural Implications, in: Cambridge Archaeological Journal 26:3, pp. 493-512

Benzel, K. 2013. Puabi’s adornment for the afterlife: materials and technology of jewelry at Ur in Mesopotamia. PhD-thesis, Columbia University

Gansell, A. R. 2007. Identity and Adornment in the Third-millennium BCE Mesopotamian ‘Royal Cemetery’ at Ur, in: Cambridge Archaeological Journal 17:1, pp. 29-46

Gansell, A.R., S.L. James & S Dillon 2012. Women in ancient Mesopotamia, in: A Companion to Women in the Ancient World, pp. 11-24

Hussein, M.M. 2016. Nimrud. The Queens’ Tombs. Iraqi State Board of Antiquities and Heritage, Baghdad/Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago Acces this publication here

Maxwell-Hysop, K.R. 1960. The Ur Jewellery. A Re-Assessment in the Light of Some Recent Discoveries, in: Iraq Vol. 22, pp. 105-15

Jenkins, M. & M. Keene 1982. Islamic Jewelry in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Miller, N. F. 2000. Plant Forms in Jewellery from the Royal Cemetery at Ur, in: Iraq Vol. 62, pp. 149-155

Peasnall, B. & M.S. Rothmann. One of Iraq’s Earliest Towns. Excavating Tepe Gawra in the archives of the University of Pennsylvania Museum, in Expedition Vol. 45 no 3, pp. 34-39 Access this publication here

Varberg, J. et al. 2016. Mesopotamian glass from Late Bronze Age Egypt, Romania, Germany and Denmark, in: Journal of Archaeological Science 74, pp. 184-194

The Bedouin Silver blog gives credit where credit is due! Transparent referencing and citing sources helps us all grow. Would you like to do the same and quote this article? Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

Ancient jewellery: Syria

Ancient jewellery: Syria

by | Cultures & People

Jewellery history of the Levant

Ancient jewellery from Syria

Published Feb 2, 2025

When we think about the history of jewellery, Syria offers some of the richest finds in the region. From the earliest shell beads along the Euphrates to the magnificent adornment on Palmyra’s funerary busts, jewellery has been a constant presence in Syrian history. It tells us about daily life, trade connections, and cultural identity across thousands of years.

In this post, I’ll explore the role of ancient Syrian jewellery in different eras: from Bronze Age tombs at Ebla and Ugarit, to Roman-era sites such as Dura Europos, and into the splendour of medieval goldsmithing in Raqqa.

This blog is part of my Ancient Jewellery series, exploring how adornment shaped identity across the Middle East and Mediterranean. You can also read about ancient jewellery from Iraq, Egypt, Lebanon, Palestine and more to come!

Early jewellery history of Syria: shell beads & adornment

The geographical area which is now Syria is, historically, part of the larger Syro-Palestinian cultural sphere. Like in many other regions, shell beads are among the oldest forms of personal adornment in Syria.

In southwestern Syria, shell beads from three archaeological sites in the foothills of the Anti-Lebanon mountain range tell us more about the importance of personal adornment at the end of the Paleolithic, some 11,000 years ago.

A rock shelter at Baaz, and two caves at Kozah and Ain Dabbour yielded large quantities of shell beads. These were not simply made of leftover shells after food production: analysis has shown the majority of the shells came from the Mediterranean, some 90 kilometres and two mountain ranges away!

Bronze Age jewellery in Syria: Ebla and the Euphrates

Syria is home to some of the earliest farming communities on the banks of the river al-Furat, or Euphrates. Here, settlements developed into true city-states, and by 3,500 BCE current Tell Mardikh was the seat of one of these internationally orientated kingdoms: Ebla. The kingdom traded with Cyprus, Egypt, Afghanistan and Sumer in current-day Iraq, which is clearly visible from the archives excavated in the city.

What we also learn from the archives is the value of precious commodities such as personal adornment. Daggers, their belts and the connecting suspension hooks seem to have been worn as status symbol and as carrier of identity, a practice reminiscent of the Omani and Yemeni jambiya or khanjar. Ornamental discs of silver or gold, inlaid with precious stones, were as common as bracelets, which are described as having eagle-headed terminals.

What is even more fascinating is the glimpse of a redistribution economy the archives offer: jewellery is regularly melted down in exchange for other pieces. One example mentions the melting of three silver bracelets to obtain three decorative discs in low-grade gold.

Beads and jewellery of Bronze Age Syria: Ugarit and Qatna

The royal tombs of Ebla contained gold jewellery, which was also found in the city of Ugarit in modern-day Ras Shamra. Here, goldsmiths employed filigree and granulation, as can be seen on the pair of crescent earrings shown above: a type that is still current in Syria today. In northern Syria, burials such as found at Tell Sabi Abyad show a wide variety in jewellery: bracelets and anklets in bronze, gold, or even iron, hairpins and combs, necklaces, pendants and beads of stone, glass, faience, shell and gold.

The length and width of the trade networks is demonstrated by the royal tomb at Qatna, current-day Tell Mishrife, where amber beads were identified as coming from the Baltic area. Interestingly, this tomb also contained various beads and pendants of a blue-greenish material set in gold: instead of turquoise, this is variscite, which apparently was valued for its close resemblance to turquoise.

Gold earrings excavated in Syria, dating to 200 - 300 CE

Dura Europos and Syrian jewellery in the Roman world

In the utmost east of Syria, on the banks of the Euphrates, a city was built by the Seleucids around 300 BCE. It was conquered by the Romans in the 2nd century CE, and finally destoyed by the Sassanids in the 3rd century. Called Dura Europos, this was a cosmopolitan city with temples for Graeco-Roman, Mesopotamian and Persian gods as well as a church and a synagogue.

Throughout the city, jewellery was found during excavations: lost pieces or treasures stashed away in hoards. Besides these actual pieces, the city also has numerous wall paintings showing how jewellery and dress were worn. Here, we find Roman fibulae or clothing pins indicating a strong military presence, and key-shaped rings. These were used as actual keys and are therefore very telling items: they clearly signal the wearer owned valuable items.

Silver rings with intaglios in semiprecious stones or glass show the variety of the Graeco-Roman pantheon, and bracelets with terminals in the shape of snake-heads are reminiscent of bracelets as they are still worn today.

Palmyra jewellery: funerary busts and cultural identity

In the Roman city of Palmyra, elite ladies had themselves portrayed on funerary busts. These show a mixture of Roman, Persian and Indian jewellery styles and clothing and served to show the considerable wealth of the inhabitants of the city.

These busts were originally painted in bright colours, which gives us an idea of the splendor worn. They also form an interesting way of expressing identity. While in other parts of the Roman Empire women would not be shown wearing large quantities of jewellery to underscore their feminine virtues, in Palmyra the opposite was true: the more jewellery, the more honourable the lady wearing it. Here, we see how local forms of expression are used to convey similar concepts.

Medieval Syrian goldsmithing: Raqqa and the Fatimid period

During the Middle Ages, Raqqa was an important center for goldsmithing. Many jewellery pieces from the Fatimid dynasty (909-1171) have been created either in Egypt or Syria: the difference is indistinguishable. The jewellery of this period is exceptionally finely made, using wire filigree and granulation. Not much of it survived, as it was mostly melted down in later periods. The openwork filigree of the Fatimids continued to be produced under the Ottomans, albeit less delicate and in completely different shapes, and so continued into the traditional jewellery of our time.

Ancient jewellery of Syria: heritage and preservation

The story of ancient jewellery in Syria spans millennia. Shell beads from the Euphrates show how even the simplest ornaments carried meaning. Bronze Age sites such as Ebla and Ugarit reveal jewellery as a marker of wealth and ritual. Palmyra’s busts preserve a vivid record of local jewellery styles, while finds from Dura Europos place Syria in the wider Roman world. In the medieval period, Raqqa’s workshops highlight Syria’s role as a centre of fine goldsmithing.

Taken together, these finds show that jewellery in Syria was never just about adornment. It was a language of identity, status, and belief — and one that continues to connect us to the people of the past. By tracing Syria’s jewellery from beads to busts and beyond, we see how deeply woven adornment is into the story of human culture.

The many years of devastating war in Syria have not only destroyed the age-old suqs, but also severely impacted older heritage. Museums have been looted and are slowly beginning to be rebuilt where possible. Jewellery forms part of the millennia old heritage of a country where civilization began: keeping this heritage alive has never more been important and urgent than it is now.

More jewellery from Syria? You might also like Silversmiths of Deir ez-Zor

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More posts on jewellery, cultures and people? Browse them all here!

Join the Jewellery List and receive new articles, jewellery news and more in your inbox!

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References

This is an updated, adapted and expanded version of a blog I wrote earlier for the Zay Initiative.

Abe, Y. et al. 2019. Use of variscite as a gemstone in the Late Bronze Age Royal Tomb at Qatna, Syria, in: Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 27, 1-6

Düring, B., E. Visser & P. Akkermans 2015. Skeletons in the fortress: the Late Bronze Age burials of Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria, in: Levant 47:1, 30-50

Fortin, M. (ed) 1999. Syria. Land of Civilizations. Les Éditions de l’Homme

Kaizer, T. (ed) 2016. Religion, Society and Culture at Dura-Europos. Cambridge University Press.

Kalter, J. 1992. The Arts and Crafts of Syria, Edition Hansjörg Mayer, Stuttgart/London

Kandel, A.W. et al 2017. Epipaleolithic shell beads from Damascus Province, Syria, in: Quaternary International 464, 126-140

Klaver, S. 2019. Women in Roman Syria. The cases of Dura-Europos, Palmyra and Seleucia on the Euphrates. PhD-thesis, University of Amsterdam

Maiocchi, M. 2010. Decorative parts and precious artifacts at Ebla, in: Journal of Cuneiform Studies 62, 1-24

Mukherjee, A. et al. 2008. The Qatna lion: scientific confirmation of Baltic amber in Late Bronze Age Syria, in: Antiquity 82, pp. 49-59

Prévalet, R. 2009. Preliminary observation on three Late Bronze Age gold items from Ras Shamra (Ugarit), in: ArcheoSciences 33. Access this publication here.

The Bedouin Silver blog gives credit where credit is due! Transparent referencing and citing sources helps us all grow. Would you like to do the same and quote this article? Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

Deir ez-Zor as a jewellery centre

Deir ez-Zor as a jewellery centre

by | Cultures & People, Objects

Jewellery from Syria

Deir ez-Zor as a centre for jewellery

Published on December 16, 2024

You will often find bracelets attributed to Deir ez-Zor, in Syria. Who made these pieces of jewellery, and who purchased them? Just because they have been created in Deir ez-Zor, does not automatically mean they were worn only by Syrian customers – especially not in a time where state boundaries were quite different from today’s situation. In this blog, I’ll explore the silversmiths of Deir ez-Zor and their clients!

Where is Deir ez-Zor?

Deir ez-Zor, also spelled Deir ez-Zur or Deir Azzor, is a town located on the banks of the Euphrates River in eastern Syria. It sits at a cultural and economic crossroads, and has always been a trade hub. Its geographical position connects Mesopotamia, current-day Iraq and Syria, to the Levant. The map below shows where to locate Deir ez-Zor. The town was one of three major hubs for silversmithing, along with Aleppo and Damascus. [1]

Jewellery makers in Deir ez-Zor

The silversmiths of Deir ez-Zor were skilled artisans, often working within family workshops where techniques and designs were passed down through generations. Before the 1930s, most silversmiths were Jewish. [2]

That is a notable difference with Damascus and Aleppo, where the majority of the silversmiths were Christians: in Damascus Catholics and Armenians, and in Aleppo most were Armenians. [3] After the Jewish population moved to the newly created state of Israel at the end of the 1940s, silversmithing was practised by Armenians and Muslims.

The craft dwindled slowly, and by the early 1990s, Johannes Kalter reported that there were only few silversmiths left in Deir ez-Zor. [4]

Niello: Armenian craftmanship in Syria

One of the silverworking traditions that Deir ez-Zor stands out for, is the use of niello. This was most likely introduced by Armenian silversmiths [5] and increased in use after the Armenian genocide, when survivors fled to Syria. The bracelet shown above, with its worn niello decoration, was likely produced in Deir ez-Zor.

These do not necessarily have to be vintage or old: as late as the 1990s, Kalter describes how ‘only the demand from tourists keeps this ancient and sophisticated technique of the silversmiths alive’ [6] – an important distinction to bear in mind. And not only may these bracelets be less than 30 years old, they can be found in a wide area, too.

The wide reach of jewellery from Deir ez-Zor

The primary clientele for Deir ez-Zor’s silver jewellery were local women, for whom jewellery served as both ornamentation and a form of financial security. Women’s jewellery was often given as part of their dowry and could be melted down or sold in times of need.

Bedouin tribes also constituted an important market for silversmiths. Jewellery from Deir ez-Zor was not only prized locally but also traded across Syria and neighbouring regions: traders from Aleppo, Damascus, and Baghdad would acquire pieces from Deir ez-Zor to sell in their own cities.

That means that jewellery created in Deir ez-Zor can be found in a wide area: in Syria itself, but also in Turkey, Iraq, Palestine, Jordan, and Lebanon. And this is where sometimes, it gets confusing.

You will find these bracelets (and indeed other jewellery produced in Deir ez-Zor) often presented as traditional jewellery from Jordan or Iraq – and they are, but not exclusively. Here, modern state boundaries divide cultures that call a shared region home, and categorizing jewellery according to today’s map only effectively erases that shared history.

The jewellers of Deir ez-Zor catered to a pluriform world, and in recognising that, we can do their work and their world more justice!

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References for Deir ez-Zor as a centre for silver jewellery

[1] J. Kalter, M. Pavaloi & M. Zerrnickel 1992, The Arts and Crafts of Syria, Thames & Hudson, p. 76

[2] As stated here: https://craftsofsyria.uvic.ca/deir-ez-zor-silversmiths/

[3] Kalter et al, p. 77

[4] Kalter et al, p. 76, 78

[5] Kalter et al, p. 78

[6] Kalter et al, p. 78 and fig 136 on p. 136, where similar bracelets are shown as contemporary (i.e. 1990s) craftmanship.

Would you like to quote this article? Please do! Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

Jewelry and Adornment of Libya

Jewelry and Adornment of Libya

by | Cultures & People, Reviews

Libyan jewellery in depth

Jewelry and Adornment of Libya

Published on November 8, 2024

Libya is home to spectacular jewellery, but very few books are currently available on the jewellery heritage of this country. That has now changed with the much-anticipated arrival of Jewelry and Adornment of Libya: a book that fills a huge gap – and in more ways than one!

Jewelry and Adornment of Libya: a personal view

The author of this book, Hala Ghellali, is from Libya herself: she was born and raised in Tripoli. This is where she first encountered silver jewellery as a young woman, when her father took her to the souq to purchase silver bracelets for her. Personal memories like this form the starting point of the book, but Hala’s background is much wider. You may have read her essay in the Postcard Women’s Imaginarium book, for example.

She was schooled in Tripoli, studied in France, and then moved to Italy, Egypt, Syria and finally, the USA. She is fascinated by Libyan history, both the tangible and the intangible (like poetry or proverbs), and has conducted research into jewellery and adornment for years.

What do you get when someone like that writes a book? A super rich, very detailed book that (at least for me) hits all the important nails on the head when it comes to jewellery research.

Jewelry and Adornment of Libya: the outline

Let me start with one of my hangups: references. You know I love references! Sharing one’s sources when making a claim is very helpful when one wants a book to contribute to common knowledge, and simply necessary when one wants to enable future research. Jewelry and Adornment of Libya is referenced, and here’s the beauty of it: it references sources in Arabic, Italian, French, and English, and provides clear references as to which silversmith shared which piece of information, anecdote or memory with the author. That is different for Libyan Jewellery – A Journey Through Symbols by Elena Schenone Alberini (1998) for example: this has a bibliography, but is not referenced.  

This kaleidoscope of sources results in a solid basis for the research in this book. Hala effortlessly combines observations from travel diaries with patent books, colonial legislation with oral history and poetry, museum pieces with personal memories. This variety brings you a book that is packed with facts and insights on the context of jewellery – absolutely crucial if we want to understand the jewellery itself.

The book is roughly structured in three main parts: the world of jewellery producers, the world of jewellery wearers, and wedding customs in Tripoli. So, let me take you on a quick tour!

Libyan jewellery: the silversmiths

The first three chapters of the book discuss the history of Libyan silversmithing. Here, the book differs notably from Schenone Alberini’s book: these chapters really dive in the history of jewellery production. First, a chapter on jewellery in archaeological excavations and travel diaries outlines the sources that exist for the history of jewellery in Libya. Interestingly, these also include reports by merchants, shedding light on the transactional context of jewellery: who buys and sells these things, and for how much?

Next is a chapter on the production of jewellery itself, both in its historic context as well as detailing techniques. The wealth of historic background is incredibly enlightening. Just one example is how we learn about the close relations between the Jewish silversmithing communities of both Tripoli and Djerba in Tunisia. As so often the case, colonial borders mess with transregional cultural identities: in the case of Tripoli and Djerba, these two communities became so closely entangled that much of the southern Tunisian jewellery was hallmarked in Tripoli. This chapter picks apart how political and economic developments affected both the Jewish and Muslim silver business over time.

I can’t emphasise enough how relevant this is – I see so many online sources and discussions on social media claiming that a piece of jewellery belongs to either this or that nationality, without consideration for the historical context, that it is nothing short of refreshing to see someone patiently walking us through the history of it all and presenting us with a nuanced, detailed view.

There is much more in this chapter: guild organisation, the various arts and crafts production centres, techniques and forms, terminology used by both Jewish and Muslim jewellery makers, all against their shifting historic and cultural backgrounds.

And then there is hallmarks! You know I adore my copy of World Hallmarks Volume II, the fabulous overview of hallmarks from non-Western countries. But Libya is missing from this overview. Schenone Alberini does present hallmarks and adds drawings of both hallmarks and amin stamps, but has difficulty organising the hallmarks chronologically – another gap sorted with Jewelry and Adornment of Libya. Here, we learn of the development of hallmarks throughout and after the Italian colonial period, the difference between hallmarks and master silversmith stamps, and the challenges in attempting to organise hallmarks diachronically.

Libyan jewellery: from head to toe

The book then continues with ten chapters devoted to jewellery itself. From head jewellery to waistcoat buttons to belts, anklets and slippers, in these pages you will find an abundance of jewellery – and its stories. Each piece of jewellery is presented with its vernacular name, there are poetry and song references throughout, and here again, everything is discussed in its historic timeframe. For many names, their linguistic origin is also given, which helps a lot in understanding what these names mean and why specifically they are chosen for a particular object.

These chapters are so rich in their descriptions that I don’t even know where to begin. Let me just say that when you read it all, you will get so much more than just jewellery. There are customs and practices, sayings and Qur’an citations, beliefs and glimpses into everyday life. And the photos! The entire book is lavishly illustrated, with images of private collections that have not been published before, but also with photos of how jewellery is actually worn.

As if that was not enough, the final chapter presents jewellery customs related to engagement and marriage in the city of Tripoli. Illustrated with vintage photos of actual wedding ceremonies, this essay brings us customs and habits that have since disappeared, and as such, this forms yet another important documentation of jewellery in its living, breathing context.

Libyan jewellery research: just in time

That sense of disappearing traditions is present throughout the book. In the epilogue, Hala shares the difficult road towards the publication of this book. For one, archives are not always accessible: in 2011, the political situation changed drastically, resulting in difficult times for those living and working in Libya. Another part of the challenges was the unescapable fact that the last generation of both wearers and silversmiths is disappearing rapidly. Who still remembers songs, customs, memories from before the Second World War? And even more relevant: who is willing to actually share these?

This is a challenge we see everywhere around the globe, and this book illustrates how important it is to incorporate this disappearing knowledge before there is no one left to ask. One of the things I really value is how this book pays it forward to future researchers by including an long list of Tripolitan silver- and goldsmiths in the appendix: we may not yet know when exactly they practised their craft, or what their makers’ mark looks like, but at least, this provides us with a starting point in preserving their names and their memory.

Glossary of jewellery terms

There is even more to this book, I’m not done yet. For me, one of the highlights is the glossary of jewellery terms in Arabic at the end of the book. For those of us who do not master Arabic, these four pages with terminology for everything from earrings to anklets are a major asset. You remember that e-book with jewellery search terms in 7 languages I created to help you expand your online search results? This glossary is a big help with the Arabic terms – do note that it is Libyan Arabic, so regionally spoken, but it is very insightful nonetheless.

So far, you’ll have noticed that I’m gushing. Is there no comment to be made at all…? Very few, if I’m being honest.

If I could ask for anything more, it would be a map of Libya and its neighbouring countries to help visualise where, for example, Djerba and Siwa are relative to Tripoli. As an archaeologist, I would have liked to see more diachronic backup for the explanation of some forms of symbolism: up until now, no one has convincingly shown that some forms of pre-Islamic symbolism, like the triangle for Tanit or the cross-in-circle pendant, have indeed been present as such in jewellery continuously. I lean towards the thought that this is more a case of revival than survival, but that is me. And well, ok, final comment, the green font for quotes is at times difficult to read.

But that’s it – the book design is beautiful, the weight of the paper has a sumptuous feel to it, and it’s a good thing that this is a hardback edition: I’m going to be leafing through it quite often.

For those that would want to compare this to Schenone Alberini’s book: that is gorgeous, too, no shade! But Jewelry and Adornment of Libya goes beyond, is more detailed and specific. I found that reading Jewelry and Adornment of Libya helped me place Schenone Alberini’s book in more context, and increased my understanding of Libyan jewellery significantly.

Jewelry and Adornment of Libya: a treasure of a book

The author writes that creating an exhaustive catalogue has not been her intention: the book gravitates around Tripoli (but does include many other places in the jewellery chapters), there is always more research to be done, and she hopes that researchers will build upon this work. I hope so, too! And with Jewelry and Adornment of Libya, the standard is set high.

Because with this book, you will get far more than a catalogue with Libyan jewellery. You will get a valuable record of the world in which this jewellery existed: its social, cultural, historical and economic context. This is one of the best recent books on traditional jewellery I have read, also because of its clear referencing – and as you know, I have read quite a few. So, whether you are from Libya yourself, a collector, curator or scholar working with traditional jewellery: go on and treat yourself to this book before it ends up out of print!

More about Jewellery and Adornment of Libya

Jewelry and Adornment of Libya By Hala Ghellali, 2024. 180 pages, full colour, English.

Published by BLKVLD Uitgevers Publishers.

Available with the publisher: see here how to order

I received the book as review copy.

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The Bedouin Silver blog gives credit where credit is due! Transparent referencing and citing sources helps us all grow. Would you like to do the same and quote this article? Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

Joyeria Amazig/Amazigh Jewelry

Joyeria Amazig/Amazigh Jewelry

by | Cultures & People, Reviews

A private jewellery collection

Joyería Amazig/Amazigh jewellery

Published on November 3, 2024

Another private collection that sees the light of day: in an exhibition and a catalogue! The collection of Amazigh jewellery collected by Spanish ambassador Jorge Dezcallar de Mazarredo has been the focus of an exhibition in Granada, and its accompanying catalogue Joyería Amazig presents an overview of the collection.

Amazigh jewellery: neighbours

With the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa being neighbours, separated only by the street of Gibraltar, both geographical realms share a history. Not only of trade, but of mutual colonisation; the Amazigh kingdoms conquered the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century, and would control it until the 15th century, and in Spain held two ‘protectorates’ in Morocco from 1912 to 1952 amidst the French colonisation of the Maghreb.

It is this shared history that the exhibition aims to emphasise with an exhibition on Amazigh jewellery: ‘to understand more about the cultural wealth of the past, and to build bridges towards a future based on respect for and appreciation of diversity’ [p. 11] [1]

Amazigh jewellery: the book

This publication is bilingual in Spanish and English: an excellent choice, as by using two of the major world languages, the collection may reach a wide audience. The book is divided into two main parts. First, an introductory part highlights the cultural background of Amazigh jewellery. This is followed by the second part, which is the catalogue itself.

The introductory part starts with two essays on the cultural history of the Amazigh, and places these in local context in an essay on the Amazigh in Granada. Given that the exhibition was held in Granada, this chapter truly connects two worlds. The jewellery is then explored by Cynthia J. Becker. Her article uses the collection as a starting point and merges it with her in-depth description of jewellery makers and wearers. I loved how she both includes the broad strokes of history as well as significant local details to place this jewellery collection in its cultural context.

Finally, the ambassador himself details how both his collection and his appreciation for jewellery grew – as you know, it is important to get some idea of the circumstances of collecting and the personal preferences of the collector. This helps understand the collection itself and to compare it with others: each collector holds one piece of the total puzzle, and so having a chapter on the collection history is most valuable. In this case, the starting point was his own culture: the presence of Spanish coins in clothing pins.

The collection: a mixture of pieces

In this case, the collection embraces mostly relatable pieces. Where you will often find catalogues with high-end, exceptional pieces (because that is what the collector is aiming for, and which leave out the more common pieces), these pages reflect the transitional stages of jewellery: the jewellery available in the market today, and their changing interpretations.

Both older and newer jewellery sit side by side with restrung or altered pieces, like the Draa temporal ornament reworked into a pendant [p. 222]. There are also several chimeras or composite pieces in the collection, like the diadem shown on p. 200: this has been constructed of two different bands placed on top of each other, crowned with an upside-down positioned fibula. [2] This has been constructed for the market for cultural outsiders: it would not have been worn as such by the Amazigh community.

That is also the case with the multi-strand necklaces shown on pp 244-245: these are relatively recent compositions, and not part of traditional dress. [3] Creations like these showcase the evolving nature of jewellery from an economical point of view: a way to make a living. Those alterations come in various forms, and are not automatically a bad thing: see how that works and 5 practical tips on how to spot alterations here.

However, the catalogue does not differentiate between these newer and older pieces, and that is a serious drawback. None of the captions gives a date for the piece shown: the publication definitely does not claim all pieces are indeed old, but does not point out when they are younger, either. There are also no reflections on cultural authenticity, which in several cases might have helped to avoid misunderstandings.

A wide variety of jewellery

Personally, I liked the overview of fibulas that have coins as their main decorative element. Coin jewellery may tell us a lot about its wearers, as I describe here.  7 pages with a series of fibulas carrying Spanish coins present a selection that you will not find as easily elsewhere – here, the focus of the collector brings us another angle through which to study jewellery. The drawback is that of all objects in the catalogue, these lack a proper description. For a Spanish person, these coins are probably easily recognisable and datable, but I’ll need to spend a little more time comparing the images to Spanish coinage through the centuries.

The variety of the collection is wide: I loved the variety in fabric headbands with all sorts of decoration stitched on (although I’m not entirely sure all of them are in authentic configuration), you’ll find several examples of large fibula sets, but also a selection of tiny amulets…there are pieces from Mauritania to Libya and I spent a good time going over all of them.

A noteworthy point of the book is that it zooms out to the transregional elements of Amazigh jewellery on occasion. A temporal pendant from Libya for example is compared to both Moroccan and Tunisian examples [p. 237, only in text, not with images], and while all three are different, their common ancestry is not often addressed directly, so I liked that this was touched upon, however briefly.

Joyería Amazig

The focus of this book is, understandably given the position of the collector, on Morocco, but incidentally you will find pieces from Algeria, Tunisia and Libya as well. It is abundantly illustrated: landscapes, rock art, architecture, paintings and photos of people allow you to appreciate the context of the jewellery.

That being said, there is no reflection on the nature of some of these images: colonial postcards and Orientalising paintings are included without further discussion.Some of these have been made under duress, and not all of them are to be considered reliable sources: personally, I feel that the images chosen for a book should be considered with as much care as the text itself.

The artists’ drawings of jewellery throughout the book are simply beautiful: the drawing on the cover is just one example (although those touches of verdigris are a bit unsettling on such a beautiful piece!) There are many more, and I liked their dreamy rendering of beautiful jewels.

The introductory chapters are well written, and contain a wealth of knowledge about Amazigh history and culture, which is so important when looking at jewellery in its context. The book reflects the changing market for jewellery, and pays attention to the more modest pieces. It is these ‘humbler’ items that stand to disappear first, because collectors do not always value these: see the 4 filters of collecting explained here.

I also appreciated that the catalogue part dedicates a single page to every item, allowing you to see it in full. Each piece of jewellery is presented against a black or cream-coloured background, so they really stand out.

However, caution is needed if you’d want to use this as a reference book: like I said, the captions do not clarify the age of the pieces and also do not address the possibility of pieces being composed and rearranged from older elements. When researching exact details of individual pieces, you’ll need to cross-check information in this book with other sources.

Joyería Amazig is an overview of a personal collection. The chapters on its cultural context in the first part of the book add value; the catalogue needs to be considered with caution.

More about Joyería Amazig

Joyería Amazig: identidad de los pueblos beréberes – Amazigh jewelry: identity of the Berber Peoples

Various authors, 2024. 348 pages, full colour, bilingual in Spanish/English

Published by El legado andalusí.

Available with the publisher: to order, fill out the email form under ‘solicitar información’ and the publisher will get back to you with a quote for shipping costs. (the field ‘correo electronico’ is where you leave your email address)

I received the book digitally as review copy. In all transparency: I received a low resolution pdf to review, and have not seen the printed book itself. I can’t tell you anything about the technical execution of the book, the quality of the images, or show you what it looks like inside – just so you know!

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References

[1] I think it’s page 11, the introductory part of the book has no page numbering.

[2] Probably a belt element as shown in Benfoughal, T. 1997, Bijoux et Bijoutiers de l’Aures, p. 162-164, combined with a diadem and the body of a fibula.

[3] As discussed by Alaa Eddine Sagid, curator of the MAP Marrakech, on Facebook-group Ethnic Jewels Community, May 13, 2021.

The Bedouin Silver blog gives credit where credit is due! Transparent referencing and citing sources helps us all grow. Would you like to do the same and quote this article? Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on the jewellery of the Egyptian zar-ritual. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only.