Ancient jewellery: Palestine

Ancient jewellery: Palestine

by | Ancient jewellery, Cultures & People

levantine jewellery history

Ancient Palestinian jewellery

Updated March 9, 2025

What is the history of traditional jewellery in North Africa and the Middle East? Historical context and cultural heritage have left their traces in the traditional jewellery worn in countries as we know them today, and so this blog series takes us back to the distant past. In this blog, I will look at jewellery history in Palestine: the region of Historic Palestine and Greater Syria, which since 1948 includes Israel.  What is the history of Palestinian jewellery in very broad strokes?

Ancient trade and historic Palestine

Historic Palestine is situated on the shores of the Mediterranean. Here, trade routes coming over land from the Arab Peninsula and Central Asia connected with those coming from Egypt. The sea routes over the Mediterranean also included Palestinian ports. As in most of the eastern Mediterranean, influences from Western Asia met directly with southern European and northern African cultures, resulting in a pluriform world.

Tell el-Ajjul, near the modern city of Gaza, was one of the principal cities in the southern Levant as it was strategically located on the main route through Sinai into Egypt, near the Mediterranean coast as well as on an intersection with trade routes coming from Syria.

Bronze Age Palestine: gold jewellery and glass beads

Tell el-Ajjul for example was a place where gold jewellery was produced in the late Bronze Age. [1] Here, three hoards were found, which reflect these international relations in their variety of styles. Some of the jewellery items are clearly Egyptian, such as rings with scarabs. Others are based on more local Canaanite traditions, such as the triangular pendant with a goddess, of which parallels have been found in Syria as well as on the Uluburun shipwreck. Several earrings and a crescent pendant are reminiscent of jewellery still worn today.

Jewellery based on Egyptian examples, such as scarabs and other Egyptian amulets is found widely in Palestine from ca 1500 BCE onwards: this is the timeframe in which the pharaohs extended their empire into the Levant.

In Bisan, also known as Beit She’an, over 1,500 glass and faience beads were excavated within a temple site. [2] While the majority of the glass and faience beads were of Egyptian production methods and style, they were strung together with beads and ornaments that referred to Canaanite gods and goddesses.

Silver jewellery hoards in historic Palestine

Besides gold jewellery and glass beads, several hoards of silver have been found throughout Palestine as well. [3] These date from the 12th century BCE to the 6th century BCE and tell us a great deal about trade and contacts. The origin of the silver itself in these hoards has been analyzed, and this showed two notable facts. [4]

First, the silver was melted down and reworked several times. This is a custom that is widespread throughout Southwest Asia and North Africa, as precious metals were valuable and reused when needed.

Second, the origins of the silver found in these hoards are Anatolia, the Aegean and, perhaps more surprising, the western Mediterranean – the Iberian Peninsula, or Sardinia. This points to a trade contact from west to east and illustrates the wide reach of trade networks in the late Bronze and early Iron Age.

Glass jewellery production in al Khalil [Hebron] and the coastal regions

Palestine was a major region of glass production during the first millennium CE.[5] Here, glass finger rings, beads, pendants and bracelets were created. Pilgrim souvenirs made of glass catered to Christian worshippers [6].

Glass jewellery continued to be created during the Middle Ages, when for example the use of glass bracelets increased exponentially. Fragments of bracelets are regularly found at excavation sites, but are not often well understood. Their method of production, just like beads, did not change significantly for a long time. This makes them difficult to date: it is the excavation stratigraphy that provides a date for the bracelet fragments. [7]

One of the locations that was famous for its glass production until the last century was al Khalil, also known as Hebron. Here, the glass industry dates back at least two millennia. Glass beads have been produced here as well, at least since the Middle Ages, and a 1799 travel account mentions the coarse glass beads that were created in Hebron and traded to East Africa. Glass bracelets made in Palestine were considered an indispensable part of a bride’s dowry in 1920s southern Palestine.⁠ [8]

This blog will continue with the traditional silver jewellery of Palestine: Bethlehem.

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Find out more about the history of jewellery in the e-course on Ancient Jewellery!

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References

[1] McGovern, E. 1980. Ornamental and Amuletic Jewelry Pendants of Late Bronze Age Palestine. An Archaeological Study. PhD-thesis, University of Pennsylvania

[2] McGovern, E., S.J. Stuart & C.P. Swann. The Late Bronze Egyptian Garrison at Beth Shan: Glass and Faience Production and Importation in the Late New Kingdom, in: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 1993-05-01, Vol.290 (290/291), p.1-27

[3] Taha, H., A. Pol & G. Van der Kooij 2006. A Hoard of Silver Coins at Qabatiya, Palestine. Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, Ramallah

[4] Wood, J., I. Montero-Ruiz & M. Martinón-Torres. From Iberia to the Southern Levant: the Movement of Silver Across the Mediterranean in the Early Iron Age, in: Journal of World Prehistory (2019) 32, p. 1-31

[5] Freestone, I. C. Glass Production in the First Millennium CE; A Compositional Perspective, in: Klimscha, F. et al (eds) 2021. From Artificial Stone to Translucent Mass-Product. Berlin Studies of the Ancient World, 67, p. 245-246

[6] Schwarzer, H. & T. Rehren. Glass Finds From Pergamon. A Report on the Results of Recent Archaeologic and Archaeometric Research, in: Klimscha, F. et al (eds) 2021. From Artificial Stone to Translucent Mass-Product. Berlin Studies of the Ancient World, 67, p. 181

[7] See for a short excursion into glass bracelets from Sinai for example Shindo, Y. 2001. The classification and chronology of Islamic glass bracelets from al-Tur, Sinai, in: Senri Ethnological Studies vol. 55, pp. 73-100

[8] Weir, S. 1989. Palestinian Costume. The Trustees of the British Museum, London

This is an updated, adapted and expanded version of an earlier blog post I wrote for the Zay Initiative.

The Bedouin Silver blog gives credit where credit is due! Transparent referencing and citing sources helps us all grow. Would you like to do the same and quote this article? Here’s how:

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The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

The evil eye in jewellery

The evil eye in jewellery

by | Magic & Amulets

power of the eye symbol

The evil eye in jewellery

Updated August 08, 2024

What is the point of evil eye jewellery? Beads in the shape of an eye are a familiar sight all over the world, and it is a shape that goes back at least 3,500 years. What does it represent, and which other forms may eye jewellery take? In this article, I’ll explore how the symbol of the eye appears in jewellery, and what it means.

Ancient eye beads in a museum.
Modern eye beads in all colours, looking like a jumble of candy.

Let’s start by addressing what the evil eye is…

In essence, the evil eye is nothing else than jealousy or envy. I suppose we can all relate to what that feels like: that moment when you realize someone is jealous of you, or something you have achieved, or something you own, that moment makes the hairs on your arms stand up and your spine tingle. You awkwardly try to divert their attention to something else by changing the topic of your conversation, but the harm has been done.

And the thing is, you have seen it in their eyes as well as in their behaviour. That glance, that look, that split second? That was the evil eye being cast at you.

Jealousy may leave us feeling anxious, threatened, insecure or even betrayed – jealousy affects our basic need of feeling safe and valued, so no wonder this feeling has been believed to bring visible and material harm as well.

A telling example comes from the Aures Mountains, Algeria. Here, it was reported that with every glance cast a jinn traveled along with it, and that jinn would harm the person or the thing that the glance was directed at. [1]

Evil eye symbolism draws on that looking and staring.

The eye is called ‘ayn al -hasad (‘eye of envy’) or nazar (‘glance, look)’ The concept of envy has been visualized in a symbol that captures it all: the eye. Envy and jealously arise from something you’ve seen, and it is transmitted through glares and glances. The eye represents both aspects: becoming jealous, and showing it.

Incidentally, you may have experienced that openly staring at something or someone for too long is considered inappropriate in many cultures: that is that same act of looking that may make a person feel uneasy. Even if it is not because of jealousy, but out of admiration!

Staring too long in either case is inappropriate, and being too vocal about your admiration of someone or something may alert jinn, who are known to turn jealous easily…and we’re back to square one.

The eye is a universal symbol that has been in use since the early civilizations, so it is not unique to Islam only, and it is not unique to one particular country either. The history of the eye in jewellery can be traced back to the distant past: in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the concept of the evil eye was already known. [2] Eye beads have been found in archaeological excavations across the Mediterranean and throughout Europe.

How and why is the evil eye used in jewellery?

And that brings me to the question how the evil eye is integrated into jewellery, and what its purpose is. Here, I will focus on jewellery in the shape of an eye only.

The eye symbol is not just a symbol, putting a shape to that complex, uneasy feeling, but is sometimes also thought of as an entity of its own.

And jewellery counteracts that concept of the evil eye through a huge variety of forms, shapes and guises: this blog series highlights many of those amuletic capacities of jewellery. One of those is jewellery in the shape of an actual eye, so let’s look at that next.

What is evil eye jewellery?

Basically, jewellery in the shape of an eye is the first line of defense against such malicious glances. The idea is not that the wearer is casting the evil eye herself, but it works more along the lines of mirroring and deflecting. The moment ‘that’ look is shot in your direction, it will be met with a counter-gaze. That is where jewellery in the form of an actual eye gets its power from.

Usually, these will be glass beads in the shape of an eye, but there are a few other forms as well that take the form of an eye. Banded agate for example can be fashioned into eye-beads, and has been used as such for at least two millennia.

Cowrie shells may be used as a ‘stand-in’ for an eye too, as they resemble the shape of a half-closed eye. [3]

A bright blue eye.
A few dazzling blue saba uyun amulets, also called Lochscheibe or Seven Eyes amulets, on a bazaar in Iran

Are evil eye beads bad, then?

That’s a question I hear a lot. The term ‘evil eye jewellery’ or ‘evil eye beads’ has become so commonplace that we would almost forget that this is a contraption of two different things: the evil eye itself (a bad thing), and the eye symbol that is believed to work against it (a good thing).

The eye beads on charm bracelets and necklaces are not evil themselves – they deflect evil.

Whether you feel comfortable wearing them is a matter of your own values, but historically, eye beads and eye jewellery are not designed as evil. They serve to counteract evil.

And what about the blue in evil eye jewellery?

Historically, these evil eye beads appear as blue eyes. That is of course related to the cultural importance of the colour blue, to the relative rarity of people with blue eyes around the Mediterranean (‘relative’, mind you – they did and do exist), but also to the limits of technical possibilities in the past.

Nowadays, you’ll find eye beads in all colours including yellow, pink, orange or green. These are marketed with nifty sales pitches, promoting various amuletic capacities for every colour: I found pink eye beads plugged as serving ‘love’, but also to ‘neutralize disorder’ or ‘protecting friendships’.

Here, it would seem the millennia old eye symbol is now being merged with modern-day interpretations of colours and their perceived powers. This is more of a marketing concept than embpodying actual beliefs that are rooted in history – these forms of the evil eye are often mass-produced in China and serve no other purpose than profit.

The evil eye is perhaps oldest amulet symbol in the world. It is still being used and acquiring new meanings today, developing along with the changing needs, spiritual convictions and economic savy of today’s world – but in doing so, it is at risk of becoming a commodity only.

Very specific forms of eye beads

There are several specific forms of eye beads throughout North Africa and Southwest Asia: in many regions, unique traditions have developed that take their own spin on evil eye beads. Some examples are here on the blog:

The ‘Seven Eyes’ blue bead that you’ll find throughout Southwest Asia…but what is it, and what are those seven eyes?

Khalili glass eye beads from Hebron were popular from Southwest Asia to Italy: how were they worn? This article explores.

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Where can I learn more about evil eye beads and jewellery?

Find out more about the histories behind amulets in the e-course on Amulets and Magic in Jewellery!

Or start by downloading the free e-book on amulets and jewellery here.

More posts on jewellery and amulets? Browse them all here!

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References

[1] Hilton-Simpson, 1915. Some Algerian superstitions noted among the Shawia Berbers of the Aures Mountains and their nomad neighbours, in: Folklore Vol. 26 No. 3, p. 228.

[2] S. Gunther & D. Pielow (eds) 2018. Geheimnisse der Oberen und Unteren Welt. Magie im Islam zwischen Glaube und Wissenschaft, p. 29.

[3] Hilton-Simpson, 1915. Some Algerian superstitions noted among the Shawia Berbers of the Aures Mountains and their nomad neighbours, in: Folklore Vol. 26 No. 3, p. 229.

Would you like to quote this article? Please do! Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on the jewellery of the Egyptian zar-ritual. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only.

Iron in folklore and jewellery: amulets and belief

Iron in folklore and jewellery: amulets and belief

by | Magic & Amulets

iron as amulet

Iron in folklore and jewellery: amulets and belief

Updated September 14, 2025

Iron is unlike any other metal used in amulets and jewellery. While gold and silver are prized for beauty and value, iron has long been associated with protection and power. In Middle Eastern traditions and beyond, iron objects were thought to ward off unseen forces and safeguard the wearer.

This reputation made iron an important material in amulet traditions: from small protective pendants to everyday objects carried as charms. Folklore around blacksmiths, meteoric iron, and sacred texts adds to the sense that iron was never just a practical material, but a deeply symbolic one.

Interested in amulet traditions in jewellery? This blog explores how amulets in jewellery work!

Iron’s reputation as protective metal in folklore

For centuries, communities across Europe, the Middle East, and Asia have believed that iron had the power to repel harmful or unseen forces. Horseshoes hung above doors, iron nails driven into thresholds, and small iron objects worn on the body were all part of a long-standing tradition of using the metal to keep misfortune at bay.

In the Middle East, iron was often linked with strength and resilience. Its ability to be forged into weapons and tools set it apart from softer metals. Unlike gold or silver, which were associated with wealth and beauty, iron was the everyday metal of farmers, soldiers, and craftsmen. Its strength gave rise to the idea that it could also protect in unseen ways, forming an invisible barrier between the wearer and potential harm.

Learn to read jewellery! Four colourful images of online courses.

Iron and the supernatural

There is a lot of ambivalence towards iron in the human world. That is visible in the contradictory nature of sources when it comes to its uses and status.

One of the hadith states that the Prophet Muhammad wished for his personal signet ring to be made of silver. An iron ring was inacceptable to him, as it was ‘emblematic of souls condemned to eternal fire’. [2]

But on the other hand, king Solomon wore a ring said to be partly of brass and partly of iron. Solomon, widely seen as a wise and just king, used the ring to command all spirits: the iron however was used to seal orders for evil spirts. [3]

Iron and the supernatural are associated, too, but we come across conflicting statements: spirits are scared of it, yet they wear it as adornment, they use it as weapon themselves but can be harmed by it in turn.

So, let’s look beyond folklore, and turn to the invention of ironworking itself.

Iron and its meteoric origins

In the Qur’an, sura al-Ḥadīd states that iron was ‘sent down’ to the earth by God. [1] This brings the earliest form in which iron was available t0 mind: meteoric iron. It literally fell from the sky.

Smaller and larger lumps of iron, remnants of meteorites, can be found all over the Sahara, for example. You can see several of these meteoric iron lumps in the image below. The key pendant is from Oman: keys allude to iron, and that is one of the reasons they are used as amulets. (click here to see more about keys as amulets)

This type of iron was easier to work than iron ore that had to be mined, and so may have been the first type of iron to be worked. One of Tutankhamun’s daggers, dating from around 1350 BCE, was confirmed to have been made of meteoric iron. [4]

And not only was the first iron to be used by humans literally from out of this world, and so may have installed itself in our collective memory, the invention of ironworking had a profound effect in virtually every culture where it was first discovered. [5]

Lumps of meteoric iron from the Sahara, with a silver amulet in the shape of a key.

Blacksmiths, fire, and the power of iron

Because when you zoom out, you’ll find that around the world the working of iron is surrounded by myths and legends.

The person of the blacksmith or ironmonger is as ambivalent as the material itself: in many societies, blacksmiths exist on the fringes of their community, both literally and metaphorically.

Literally, because ironworking requires the use of fire. Workshops were often located at the border of a settlement, and preferably downwind. That would minimize the risk of the settlement catching fire: a necessary precaution in times when buildings as well as temporary structures were made of materials that would easily go up in flames.

And metaphorically, because those blazing fires were often associated with otherworldly realms. Any person working in those circumstances, withstanding the extreme heat, seemingly bending fire to their will and creating things of a previously unmatched hardness and durability surely had to be in league with invisible forces!

Because, just picture it: there’s a person emerging from the furnace on the edge of your community, black as the devil, or a demon, or any frighting supernatural being one believes in, surrounded by unpleasant smells of sweat and dirt, and holding something only a few could create but many wanted, like a sword or a tool…that goes against all manifestations of cleanliness and purity you could imagine. Blacksmiths were highly suspicious, but much-needed people.

And so, they were both admired and feared. Edmond Doutté writes for Algeria that ‘son of a blacksmith’ was intended as an insult and records how blacksmithing across the Maghreb was widely regarded as a profession that was looked down upon and associated with magic. [6] The same fate befell blacksmiths across the Arab Peninsula. [7]

It would seem that both the material itself as well as the persons working with it have been treated ambiguously, ever since the use of iron was first discovered.

Amulets and jewellery made of iron

I think it is quite likely that this association of iron with the supernatural is much older than any of the three monotheistic religions, and is something that has lingered in our collective memory for as long as iron has been forged by hand.

Iron is something we can defend ourselves with against very visible enemies, but also a mysterious commodity associated with the supernatural: perhaps it could be used to defend ourselves against invisible beings, too?

In the Middle East, jewellery sometimes incorporated elements not for decoration but for protective symbolism. In the case of iron, that could be actual iron objects such as keys, but also objects that refer to iron such as miniature tools. The reference to iron itself would be powerful enough to protect the wearer.

The value here lay not in material worth but in cultural meaning: iron was cheap compared to silver or gold, yet powerful in what it was believed to do.

Why iron still matters in material culture

Today, iron may seem too ordinary to deserve much attention in jewellery or museum collections. Yet its cultural role makes it important. Iron objects, from keys and tools to amulets and ornaments, remind us that jewellery and adornment are not only about beauty or wealth. They are also about belief, protection, and the way people have understood their world.

For collectors, curators, and historians, iron offers a fascinating case of how an everyday material became extraordinary in the imagination of those who used it.

A small iron ring may not sparkle like gold, but its value lies in the stories it carries: of protection, of cosmic origins, of blacksmiths who wielded fire to create it.

Iron: more than metal

Iron stands apart in the history of jewellery and adornment. It carries a weight of meaning of its own. As folklore, sacred texts, and everyday practice all show, iron was believed to protect, to guard, and to symbolise strength.

When we look at iron in amulets and jewellery, we are reminded that the stories and beliefs surrounding a material are as important as the object itself. Here, we see a technological advancement that created ripples across the world, reflected in popular beliefs: once again, magical beliefs point to actual events in the past, and to me that really is their greatest power!

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Find out more about the histories behind amulets in the e-course on Amulets and Magic in Jewellery!

Or start by downloading the free e-book on amulets and jewellery here.

More posts on jewellery and amulets? Browse them all here!

Join the Jewellery List and receive new articles, jewellery news and more in your inbox!

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Learn to read symbolism in jewellery today!

References

1] Ruska, J., “al-Ḥadīd”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 02 October 2023. http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.leidenuniv.nl:2048/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2588

[2] J. Allan, D. Sourdel and Ed., “K̲h̲ātam, K̲h̲ātim”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 02 October 2023 <http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.leidenuniv.nl:2048/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4232&gt;

[3] Walker, J. and Fenton, P., “Sulaymān b. Dāwūd”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 02 October 2023 <http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.leidenuniv.nl:2048/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7158&gt;

[4] D. Cornelli et. al. 2016. The meteoritic origin of Tutankhamun’s iron dagger blade, in: Meteoritics & Planetary Science Vol 51, issue 7, pp 1301-1309

[5] Doutté, E. 1909. Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord, p. 42.

[6] Doutté, E. 1909. Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord, p. 42-44.

[7] Chelhod, J., “Ḳayn”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 02 October 2023 <http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.leidenuniv.nl:2048/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4063&gt;

The Bedouin Silver blog gives credit where credit is due! Transparent referencing and citing sources helps us all grow. Would you like to do the same and quote this article? Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

The Bedouin Silver Jewellery Blog: Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery, and obtained her PhD at Leiden University on jewellery, informal ritual and collections. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only. Sigrid strongly believes in accessibility of knowledge, and aims to provide reliable and trustworthy content: that’s why the Bedouin Silver blog provides references and citations.

What is ‘real’ jewellery?

What is ‘real’ jewellery?

by | Opinion

Value and authenticity

What is ‘real’ jewellery?

Updated Jan 8, 2024

A recurring question I get is whether a piece of ethnic jewellery is ‘real’. Usually, that does not refer to its use, but to the components used: shouldn’t this be coral instead of glass? Why does this necklace include plastic? And the reasoning behind that, in turn, is that glass and plastic are cheaper, economically speaking, and thus of lesser importance. But economic value is not always the main factor in determining whether a piece of jewellery is ‘real’.

Value of jewellery: supply and demand

Economically speaking, the age-old law of supply and demand dictates value. The discovery of new sources or changes in demand can significantly impact the value of a given material. When demand exceeds supply, prices rise, and materials become more highly regarded. Those are the basics.

Anything that people want and is in short supply, is valuable, whether it is Hermès bags or diamonds. Both of these are kept in short supply artificially: there’s a limited number of bags made and the diamond supply is actually vast, but carefully guarded. [1] So, from that point of view, components in jewellery that are readily available (and thus cheaper) are less valuable.

Value of jewellery: peer pressure

There is also the matter of what we want that has a serious impact on how certain materials are regarded. We may not only want something because it is rare, but we may also really want something because we see other people, who we’d like to associate ourselves with, wear or own that something. (basically, that is what influencer marketing is all about)

Take the decline in silver jewellery in North Africa and Southwest Asia after the 1960s for example. When oil was discovered in the Gulf, this new field of work created a huge amount of jobs for migrant workers from across the region.

Those workers returned home with new values and new ideas on how to express wealth, as they had seen during their stay abroad: gold. Silver jewellery was regarded as old-fashioned and was massively sold off to buy new, gold jewellery.

Value of jewellery: new technologies

Technological developments also have a significant impact on the choice of material, and this is where notions of value begin to get blurry.

A great example from Europe is strass jewellery. Strass, also known as rhinestone or paste, is nowadays often looked down upon. It’s not a ‘real’ gem, it is literally glass that is treated to look like a real gem. Many people associate strass with glitzy gaudiness, maybe with cheap jewellery, and perhaps even with bad taste.

But the fascinating thing is that when strass was just invented (by a Mr. Stras, in the 18th century), it was actually held in high esteem. It was not thought of as a mere substitute, it was the real deal in and of itself and up until the 1820s was considered as actual high-end jewellery art. [2]

The same holds true for the use of bakelite in traditional jewellery of North Africa and Southwest Asia, as I have written about here. It may look like a cheap substitute for coral to us today, but back in its own day this was the height of innovation.

Value of jewellery: more than economics

So you see how the blurring of the line between natural and synthetic materials challenges traditional notions of value, and more precisely, how it illustrates that we should consider materials not just from an economic point of view. Equally important are their own cultural context and their own timeframe.

Because when we observe jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia in its own cultural context, and sometimes even in its local geographical context, we see a different notion of value.

Value of jewellery: cultural and spiritual value

Materials and components that we would consider insignificant based on their economic value are strung alongside gold, pearls, coral and other precious materials. Apparently, these components carry the same level of meaning.

Red plastic beads can happily sit next to coral beads because they are both reddish in colour. Aluminium is the material of choice for anklets worn by ritual specialists in Sudan, and iron is the only material that will keep jinn away (why? find out here!). Teeth, thorns, pebbles, pieces of bone and other such materials need to be sourced in a very particular place that is believed to be imbued with magical capacities (see more about that here): they are set in silver or gold with the same care extended to actual gemstones.

Economically worthless materials may hold great value – they are real

‘Real’ elements in jewellery do not have to be the most expensive ones, but somehow, that is how we have come to look upon them. If a piece of jewellery holds components of a ‘lesser’ economic value, we question the entire piece.

And of course, we should always be aware of reproductions or imitations designed to dupe: I wrote down 5 tips to help you recognize reproductions here. But when we look at jewellery in its cultural context, the choice of materials may reveal a lot about personal, local and societal preferences. And that in itself is more valuable than an arrangement of ‘perfect’ elements could ever offer!

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Where to find more on the cultural values of jewellery…?

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Looking for background information on your jewellery? Have a look at the courses – there’s so much available on the world of the jewellery you love!

More tips on collection management and research? Check this free resource or download the e-book!

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References

[1] You will enjoy Aja Raden’s book Stoned, which dives into the value of precious materials. Be advised though that it contains a number of historical, factual inaccuracies – but the line of reasoning is fascinating.

[2] P. von Trott zu Stolz 1982, Stras. Simili-Diamantschmuck des 18. Jh., p. 113. Antique paste jewellery is getting expensive these days, too.

Would you like to quote this article? Please do! Here’s how:

S. van Roode, [write the title as you see it above this post], published on the Bedouin Silver website [paste the exact link to this article], accessed on [the date you are reading this article and decided it was useful for you].

Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only.

UNESCO 1970

UNESCO 1970

by | Tips for collectors

collecting jewellery

UNESCO 1970: what does it mean for me?

Updated Jan 4, 2024

You may have heard of it: ‘UNESCO 1970’. But what is that exactly, and what does it mean for owning, buying and selling of traditional jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia? In this article, I’ll walk you through the main aspects.

Disclaimer up front: as I am a jewellery historian, this is not to be taken as legal advice. What I aim to do here, is give you a starting point to make your own informed choices. Just to be clear about that!

Also, this article may not be what you’d like to hear: there are collectors who find all these laws and rules annoying. But here’s the thing: we may not like them, but they exist anyhow, and more importantly: they may affect the future of your collection. So let’s dive into this convention!

What is UNESCO 1970?

First some details. ‘UNESCO 1970’s full name is the Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. [1] It was adopted in 1970 by the members of the United Nations. Its aim is, as the title suggests, to prevent the illegal trade in cultural heritage.

After the Second World War, it became increasingly clear that cultural heritage was looted and sold for profit on a massive scale, as a result of which many cultural treasures left their countries of origin.

And that is not just statues and sculptures and paintings and frescoes: jewellery is a favourite, too. It’s portable, valuable and almost guaranteed to have a buyer.

‘Okay,’ I hear you thinking, ‘but that is about ancient jewellery. Mine is max a hundred years old, give or take, and it is still being sold today!’ You’d be right, and I’ll get to that in a bit – where it concerns antiques, not antiquities, is where it gets interesting.

Is UNESCO 1970 law or legally binding for collectors of jewellery?

No, it is not: it is a convention. Up until now, a little over 100 member states of the United Nations have ratified the convention, meaning they explicitly undersign its goal.

That still does not make it law: every country has different ways of embedding the goals of the convention into their own national legislation on heritage and its import and export.

And these laws are binding for collectors and dealers of traditional Middle Eastern jewellery.

Here lies an important criterion in general, so pay attention to the next few lines: this is where miscommunication occurs every so often.

You will sometimes find advice stating that anything exported before 1970 (the date of the convention) is presumed legal. That is too simple.

It ignores the existing laws of the countries of both export and import. Let that sink in for a moment: there may be laws in the country your jewellery comes from, that predate UNESCO 1970.

Egypt is a perfect example of what I mean. Egypt already legally prohibited the export of antiquities without written approval in 1912, and revised that law in 1951.

Proving an antiquity left Egypt legally therefore requires establishing a chain of provenance dating all the way back to 1912. Looking at you, ‘mummy beads’ and ancient amulets – luckily, the majority of these is fake.

So, always check both your local legislation and the laws of the country you are exporting something from. For vintage jewellery these laws may not matter much yet, but please note that they do for antiquities – I strongly advise against buying antiquities without solid proof of legal provenance.

What does UNESCO 1970 mean for collectors of traditional jewellery?

Under most legislation [2], exporting and importing jewellery of 50 – 100 years old is completely legal. [3] It has not been looted or stolen: jewellery like this has been sold in large numbers from the 1960s onwards, and in some cases even earlier. It was readily available, and continues to be sold internationally today.

It also does not qualify as an antiquity or as an antique – yet. Items that are 100 years or older however, may fall under legislation for antiques.

I want to buy traditional jewellery: what do I need to check in advance?

I would advise to start by informing yourself about legislation in the country you are importing jewellery into.

This includes the definition of an antique (this varies from 100 to 250 years depending on where you are – most traditional jewellery is younger, but remember a piece from the 1920s is now over 100 years old).

Other factors to inform yourself about are

  • the threshold value above which import taxes apply;
  • If an export license from the country of origin is required;
  • Verification that the seller is compliant with export laws of the country it is coming from.

Obviously, this also requires a sound and truthful description of the item you’re interested in: reputable sellers will be able to provide you with parallels and references for an item on which its age is determined.

I know it sounds lovely when a piece of jewellery is from the 19th century, but check if it really is, and if so, if you can actually import it – it may be an antique under the law.

When it’s you yourself buying jewellery in another country and bringing it home with you, informing yourself about both export and import legislation falls to you.

[I can’t stress this enough, so taking another moment to repeat myself: buying archaeological jewellery in another country really is a no-no. You can’t export that without an official license, and the penalties on trafficking illegal antiquities can be severe.]

And finally, keep the receipts and any documentation – imagine your heirs would want to sell or donate a piece in say, 50 years or so: by then, most of your pieces will have become antiques. Your heirs will be needing solid proof you aquired these legally.

So I can buy vintage Middle Eastern jewellery and comply with UNESCO 1970?

Yes, as far as UNESCO 1970 goes you can buy that bracelet or necklace perfectly well, as long as you duly pay your import taxes and ensure you are compliant with legislation on antiques, if the item qualifies as such.

But… UNESCO 1970 is not the only international convention that affects the trade in traditional jewellery. There are the CITES regulations as well as ethics to be taken into account, too, which I will go into next!

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Never miss a thing on jewellery discoveries? Join the Jewellery List and find them in your inbox each month!

Looking for background information on your jewellery? Have a look at the courses – there’s so much available on the world of the jewellery you love!

More tips on collection management? Check this free resource or download the e-book!

—

References

[1] See more about the convention here: https://en.unesco.org/fighttrafficking/1970

[2] Most, not all. Uzbekistan has strict export laws, for example, and buying old jewellery (or old anything, actually, including household appliances) is a legal no-no. These laws are actively enforced, too: I have had my luggage inspected on several border crossings.

[3] Please take note that this does not apply to antiquities. ‘Excavated’ beads, ‘Neolithic’ beads etc for example are antiquities!

Sigrid van Roode

Sigrid van Roode is an archeologist, ethnographer and jewellery historian. Her main field of expertise is jewellery from North Africa and Southwest Asia, as well as archaeological and archaeological revival jewellery. She has authored several books on jewellery. Sigrid has lectured for the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Turquoise Mountain Jordan, and many others. She provides consultancy and research on jewellery collections for both museums and private collections, teaches courses and curates exhibitions. She is not involved in the business of buying and selling jewellery, and focuses on research, knowledge production, and education only.